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The findings)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -390.7800 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (of all these tests s)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD (upported the auth)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (or's hypothesis tha)Tj 88.8000 0.0000 TD (t stepchildren we)Tj 81.8400 0.0000 TD (re likely to rece)Tj 74.7600 0.0000 TD (ive less)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -413.8800 -14.3400 TD (parental support)Tj 77.5200 0.0000 TD ( for pursuit of post)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (secondary educ)Tj 74.0400 0.0000 TD (ation, relative to)Tj 78.2400 0.0000 TD ( children with two g)Tj 96.6000 0.0000 TD (enetic)Tj ET endstream endobj 42 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 54 0 R /Contents 43 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 43 0 obj << /Length 7194 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (77)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (There is a problem with this explanation though, which is made clear in a study of recent)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (graduates \(Wei)Tj 72.7200 0.0000 TD (nberger, 1998a\))Tj 75.7200 0.0000 TD (, recently comple)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (ted by the author,)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD ( in which women with)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -315.0600 -14.4000 TD (mathematical majo)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD (rs were found to m)Tj 90.4800 0.0000 TD (ake 9 percent le)Tj 75.3600 0.0000 TD (ss than their male c)Tj 92.5200 0.0000 TD (ounterparts. 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Although female)Tj 418.2000 0.0000 TD ( graduates)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -418.1400 -14.4000 TD (with technical degrees earn less than men with comparable degrees, they do make more money)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (on average than do other female graduates, suggesting that policies aimed at increasing the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (participation of women in technical college majors are likely to be quite effective at increasing)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (the relative wages of female college graduates, labor market discrimination notwithstanding.)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Wiley, S. D. \(2001\). )Tj 107.5200 0.0000 TD (Contextual Effects on Student Achievement: School Leadership and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -107.5200 -14.4000 TD (Professional Community. )Tj 128.7600 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Educational Change 2: 1-33.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -92.7000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (The author revie)Tj 79.0800 0.0000 TD (ws two elements of)Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD ( school context tha)Tj 90.2400 0.0000 TD (t have been ident)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (ified with)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -379.6800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (effective teaching. One is transformational leadership, or leadership by means of promoting )Tj 450.7200 0.0000 TD (a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -450.7200 -14.4000 TD (shared vision that drives belief and actions )Tj 209.6400 0.0000 TD (; the other is professional community among)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -209.5800 -14.4000 TD (teachers. Noting that no national-level statistical study has investigated the interdependence of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (these two contextual processes or the independent effects of each on student achievement, Wiley)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (proposes to do so.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD (The author analyzes data from the High School Effectiveness Study \(HSES\), a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (longitudinal study conducted in 1990 and 1992 within NELS:88-92. She uses data from high)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (school mathematic)' 90.2400 0.0000 TD (s teachers to mea)Tj 82.0800 0.0000 TD (sure effects on)Tj 69.7200 0.0000 TD ( student achievem)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (ent in mathematics)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (. HLM is)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -419.1600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (employed to analyze the effects of school-level variables, professional community, and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (transformational leadership on 12)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 161.4000 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.2600 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw ( grade math achie)Tj 84.7200 0.0000 TD (vement.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -215.7000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The author finds that the effects of transformational leadership and professional)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (community on student)Tj 107.4000 0.0000 TD ( achievement ar)Tj 75.7200 0.0000 TD (e interdepende)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (nt. However, pro)Tj 87.1200 0.0000 TD (fessional communit)Tj 94.3200 0.0000 TD (y only)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -434.6400 -14.4000 TD (has a noteworthy p)Tj 90.8400 0.0000 TD (ositive effect w)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (hen an above ave)Tj 82.6800 0.0000 TD (rage level of tr)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (ansformational le)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (adership is)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -400.9200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (also present. A related finding is that the effects on student achievement are found to be)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (strongest in schools with a lower average socioeconomic status \(SES\). Also, neither teacher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (participation in de)' 87.2400 0.0000 TD (cision-making nor)Tj 87.5400 0.0000 TD ( administrator man)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (agement skills are)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD ( found to be relate)Tj 87.1200 0.0000 TD (d to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -439.0800 -14.4000 TD (student achievem)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (ent.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -83.5200 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Yan, W. \(1999\). "Successful African American Students: The Role of Parental Involvement. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (Journal of Negro Education 68\(1\): 5-22.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (This study examines)Tj 98.6400 0.0000 TD ( the character)Tj 64.3200 0.0000 TD (istics of social ca)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (pital held by succe)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (ssful black studen)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (ts)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -456.6000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (as compared to successful white and nonsuccessful black students. Social capital refers to the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (social networks and social institutions that facilitate educational attainment \(Coleman, 1988\). )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (This includes three types and levels of capital which a family may provide or possess: financial)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (\(income or wealth\), human \(parental education\), and social \(relationships between parents and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (children\).)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD (The data used in this study come from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.3400 TD (1988 \(NELS:88\). Bonferoni's multiple comparison tests were used to examine the differences)Tj ET endstream endobj 44 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 54 0 R /Contents 45 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 45 0 obj << /Length 6756 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (76)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (by the fact that women are less likely to major in mathematical/technical fields )Tj 390.1200 0.0000 TD (fields that have)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -390.1200 -14.3400 TD (consistently proved to be the most lucrative. Another explanation often put forth is that women)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (choose degree p)Tj 77.0400 0.0000 TD (rograms that will f)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (it in with their plans)Tj 96.7200 0.0000 TD ( to have a family. W)Tj 100.8000 0.0000 TD (ith all three of the)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (se)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -448.6200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (examples, one would expect that controlling for the type and quality of education would reduce)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (or erase any wage differentials. The authors tested this hypothesis using data from the 1985)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Survey of Recent College Graduates. The hypothesis was not supported. The major finding of)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (the study is that, among recent college graduates, white women, black men, black women, Asian)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (men, and Asian wom)Tj 101.8800 0.0000 TD (en all face the s)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (ame 10 to 15 perce)Tj 91.0800 0.0000 TD (nt wage disadvant)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (age relative to w)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD (hite)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -433.3200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (men with the same type and quality of college education. This finding provides strong support)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (for the existenc)' 73.8000 0.0000 TD (e of discriminatio)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD (n in the market for)Tj 89.1600 0.0000 TD ( recent college)Tj 69.7200 0.0000 TD ( graduates.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -317.2800 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Weiss, E. M. \(1999\). )Tj 110.8800 0.0000 TD (Perceived Workplace Conditions and First-year Teachers )Tj 281.8800 0.0000 TD ( Morale,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -392.7000 -14.4000 TD (Career Choice Commitment, and Planned Retention: A Secondary Analysis. )Tj 372.3600 0.0000 TD ( Teaching and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -372.3600 -14.4000 TD (Teacher Education 15: 861-879.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg /F6 12.0000 Tf (This study examines the relationships between perceived workplace conditions and morale,)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (career choice commitment, and plans to remain in the profession for first-year teachers in the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (U.S. Using data from the Schools and Staffing Surveys \(1987-88 and 1993-94\), the author)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (extracted a nat)' 69.7200 0.0000 TD (ionally represe)Tj 70.8000 0.0000 TD (ntative sample of f)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (irst-year K-12 p)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD (ublic and private)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD ( full-time)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -387.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (teachers. Ordinal logistic regression, multiple regression, and hierarchical regression techniques)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (were used to examine the effect of workplace conditions \(school leadership, student behavior,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (autonomy and discretion, class size, and SES of students\) on first-year teachers )Tj 383.6400 0.0000 TD ( morale and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -383.6400 -14.4000 TD (commitment Overall, the study found that new teachers )Tj 273.2400 0.0000 TD ( views of their workplace conditions are)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -273.2400 -14.4000 TD (related to their morale, career choice commitment, and plans to remain in the profession. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (Specifically, the study found that how new teachers )Tj 251.5200 0.0000 TD ( perceive workplace conditions is often as)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -251.5200 -14.4000 TD (important as the conditions themselves. For example, dissatisfaction with class size, rather than)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (actual class size, was associated with low morale among new teachers. Supportive school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (leadership and culture, together with teacher autonomy and discretion, were strongly associated)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (with high morale, commitment to a career path, and intention to stay in the profession, among)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (first-year teachers. The perception that student behavior interferes with teaching was a)Tj 416.5200 0.0000 TD (ssociated)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.4600 -14.4000 TD (with lower morale among new teachers. Salary and perceptions of salary did not appear to aff)Tj 451.2000 0.0000 TD (ect)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -451.2000 -14.4000 TD (first-year teachers )Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD ( morale. New middle-school teachers had lower morale than elementary or)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -89.8200 -14.4000 TD (secondary teachers. Neither gender nor race had significant eff)Tj 299.8800 0.0000 TD (ects on teacher morale, career)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -299.8800 -14.4000 TD (choice commitment, or intention to stay in the profession. The need for better working)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (environments that provide mentoring and support for new teachers is emphasized.)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -57.5400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Weinberger, C. J. \(1999\). )Tj 138.4800 0.0000 TD (Mathematical College Majors and the Gender Gap in Wages. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -138.4200 -14.4000 TD (Industrial Relations 38\(July\): 407-413.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (There is a gende)Tj 78.7200 0.0000 TD (r gap in wages amo)Tj 93.1200 0.0000 TD (ng college gradu)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (ates. Some resea)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (rchers have sa)Tj 67.6800 0.0000 TD (id that this)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -401.7000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (gap can be accounted for by the fact that college graduates who rece)Tj 326.8800 0.0000 TD (ived degrees in mathematics)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -326.8800 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (earn more money t)Tj 90.1200 0.0000 TD (han those who rec)Tj 86.7600 0.0000 TD (eived non-mathem)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (atical degrees)Tj 65.4000 0.0000 TD (. Since women are)Tj 91.4400 0.0000 TD ( less)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -423.2400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (likely than men to pursue math degrees, it follows that there will be a gender wage differential. )Tj ET endstream endobj 46 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 54 0 R /Contents 47 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 47 0 obj << /Length 6970 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (75)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The success of the hierarchical linear model \(HLM\) framework and the prolifer)Tj 380.5200 0.0000 TD (ation of software)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -380.4600 -14.3400 TD (products for these types of analyses may lead educational analysts to apply statistical methods)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (that are inappropriate for their particular research questions or sample designs. 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Conventional ordinary least squares \(OLS\) techniques are still appropriate for the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (analysis of many da)' 95.5200 0.0000 TD (tasets with hiera)Tj 77.8800 0.0000 TD (rchical designs.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -173.4000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Wang, J. \(1998\). )Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (An Illustration of the Least Median Squares \(LMS\) Regression Using)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -92.8200 -14.3400 TD (PROGRESS. )Tj 68.2800 0.0000 TD ( Education 118\(4\): 515-520.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -68.2800 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Statisticians have long known about the sensitivity of Least Squares \(LS\) estimators to outliers)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (for high dimensional \(p>2\) data sets. 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A br)Tj 88.5600 0.0000 TD (ief empirical ex)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (ample drawn fro)Tj 79.0800 0.0000 TD (m the Longitudinal Stu)Tj 111.1200 0.0000 TD (dy of American Yo)Tj 92.7600 0.0000 TD (uth)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -446.6400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (\(LSAY\) data suggests that LMS methods can produce parameter estimates that yield smaller)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (average devia)Tj 66.0000 0.0000 TD (tions from observe)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (d data as well as mo)Tj 96.8400 0.0000 TD (re sensitive reg)Tj 72.4800 0.0000 TD (ression diagnostic)Tj 86.2800 0.0000 TD (s.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -411.4800 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Wang, J. and Stave)Tj 92.1600 0.0000 TD (r, J. R. \(1996\). )Tj 79.9200 0.0000 TD (An Empirical Approa)Tj 103.3200 0.0000 TD (ch Toward the Predic)Tj 104.2800 0.0000 TD (tion of Students )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -379.6800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Science Achievement in the United States and Hubei, China. )Tj 296.2800 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Research in Science)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -296.2200 -14.4000 TD (Teaching 33: 283-301.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Noting the lack of)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD ( a generally acc)Tj 74.6400 0.0000 TD (epted, theoretic)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (ally supported mode)Tj 97.9200 0.0000 TD (l to predict studen)Tj 86.2800 0.0000 TD (ts )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -419.4600 -14.4000 TD (science achiev)Tj 69.3600 0.0000 TD (ement, the author)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (s conduct an explo)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (ratory exercis)Tj 65.4000 0.0000 TD (e in model fitting. Th)Tj 108.3600 0.0000 TD (ey use)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.1600 -14.4000 TD (SISS \(Second IEA Sc)Tj 104.2800 0.0000 TD (ience Study\) data)Tj 83.1600 0.0000 TD ( from the U.S. and H)Tj 100.2000 0.0000 TD (ubei province, Chi)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (na. The authors )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -376.5000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (findings seem to accord with clearly observable cultural and structural differences betwee)Tj 429.8400 0.0000 TD (n the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -429.7800 -14.4000 TD (two nations. For example, the best fitting model of science achievement in the U.S. is much)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (more complex than the analogous model for Hubei province. The authors attribute this to the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (diversity of students and curricula in the U.S., relative to China. Also, demonstrations and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (experiments are a larger part of the classroom experience, and testing a much smaller pa)' 422.5200 0.0000 TD (rt, in the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -422.4600 -14.4000 TD (U.S. than in China. The reason is the existence of high stakes testing in China, and the lack of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (lab equipment in many schools there.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -43.2000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Weinberger, C. J. \(1998\). )Tj 135.4800 0.0000 TD (Race and Gender Wage Gaps in the Market for Recent College)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -135.4200 -14.4000 TD (Graduates. )Tj 60.3600 0.0000 TD ( Industrial Relations 37\(January\): 67-84.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -60.3600 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Previous studies ha)Tj 92.6400 0.0000 TD (ve shown that wome)Tj 98.8800 0.0000 TD (n and black men ha)Tj 93.1200 0.0000 TD (ve lower avera)Tj 70.3200 0.0000 TD (ge earnings than)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD ( white)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -433.4400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (men with the same number of years of education. One explanation for the race wage diff)Tj 427.2000 0.0000 TD (erential)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -427.2000 -14.4000 TD (is that African Americans, while they may have completed the same amount of schooling, are)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (believed to receive a lower quality of education. The gender wage differe)Tj 353.8800 0.0000 TD (ntial is often explained)Tj ET endstream endobj 48 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 66 0 R /Contents 49 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 49 0 obj << /Length 6450 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (74)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (videotape project, only one lesson per classroom was videotaped. No assessment can be made)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (on variability of th)Tj 89.6400 0.0000 TD (ese results.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -89.5800 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Wang, J. \(1998\). )Tj 95.8800 0.0000 TD (A Content Examination of the TIMSS Items. )Tj 216.9600 0.0000 TD ( Phi Delta Kappan 80 \(1\):)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -312.8400 -14.4000 TD (36-38.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The Third International Mathematics and Science Study \(TIMSS\) is a collaborative)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.3400 TD (research project sponsored by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (Achievement \(IEA\). TIMSS is the largest and most ambitious study of comparative educational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (achievement ever undertaken; it includes students from 5 grade levels, assessed in math and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (science, from mo)' 82.8000 0.0000 TD (re than 40 nations a)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD (round the world. W)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD (ang uses the items r)Tj 94.5600 0.0000 TD (eleased to the pub)Tj 86.1600 0.0000 TD (lic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -451.2000 -14.4000 TD (to look at the acad)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD (emic content of th)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (e TIMSS instrument.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -138.7200 -14.3400 TD (The author discov)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (ered four poten)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD (tial problems when)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD ( analyzing two-th)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (irds of the TIMSS)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -371.3400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (items released to the public. One third of this test was devoted to free-response questions; Wang)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (found that not all of the free-response scores reflected student science achieve)' 373.2000 0.0000 TD (ment. The coding)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -373.1400 -14.4000 TD (system used for these responses left little room for interpretation, and thus many answers earned)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (zero credit when in fact they were partially correct or better answe)Tj 317.8800 0.0000 TD (rs. It was also found that there)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -317.8800 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (were multiple cor)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (rect answers fo)Tj 72.3600 0.0000 TD (r some of the scie)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (nce questions. To r)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (eceive credit f)Tj 67.6800 0.0000 TD (or these)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -400.1400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (questions, however, students had to choose the correct response according to TIMSS grading)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (system. The TIMSS gr)Tj 112.3200 0.0000 TD (ading system also f)Tj 92.2800 0.0000 TD (ailed to take into a)Tj 88.5600 0.0000 TD (ccount cognitive d)Tj 88.5600 0.0000 TD (evelopment.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -381.7200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Students in the third and fourth grade tend to use words such as )Tj 312.6000 0.0000 TD (higher )Tj 35.8800 0.0000 TD ( and )Tj 28.5600 0.0000 TD (farther )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -377.0400 -14.3400 TD (interchangeably; however such concrete operations were not taken into consideration, and thus)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (students received a score of zero when in fact they knew the correc)Tj 320.8800 0.0000 TD (t answer.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -284.8200 -14.4000 TD (The final problem which Wang encountered was that not all TIMSS items reflected)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.3400 TD (collaboration between mathematics and science educators. The way in which many of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (questions were worded left considerable room for misconceptions. Mathematics and science)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (educators were involved in TIMSS, and these misconceptions could have been easily avoided. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (After identifying these four problems, Wang questioned whether all TIMSS items were in fact)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (true reflections of student achievement in science and mathematics. )' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Wang, J. \(1997\). )Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (Using SAS PROC MIXED to Demystify the Hierarchical Linear Model. )Tj 349.6800 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -442.5000 -14.4000 TD (Journal of Experimental Education 66\(1\): 84-93.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg /F6 12.0000 Tf (Many educational experts appear unaware of the range of modeling opportunities and software)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (tools available to individuals working within the hierarchical linear modeling \(HLM\) framework. )' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (In recognizing the origins of hierarchical linear models \(HLMs\) and mixed models, researchers)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (are better able to keep abreast of developments in statistics and other social science areas. A)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (review of selected literature in statistics and agronomy is used to demonstrate the logic of fixed,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (random, and mixed effect conceptions of data structures. A side-by-side analysis of data using)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (two popular software tools, HLM/2L and SAS PROC MIXED, is used to demonstrate the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (particular fea)' 63.3600 0.0000 TD (tures of both appli)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD (cations as well as)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD ( the similarities und)Tj 95.0400 0.0000 TD (erlying two seemin)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (gly)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -421.4400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (different approaches to the analysis of hierarchical data.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Wang, J. \(1999\). )Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (Reasons for Hierarchical Linear Models \(HLM\): A Reminder. )Tj 305.0400 0.0000 TD ( Journal of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -397.9200 -14.3400 TD (Experimental Education 68\(1\): 89-93.)Tj ET endstream endobj 50 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 66 0 R /Contents 51 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 51 0 obj << /Length 7535 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (73)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Valadez, J. R. and Anthony, J. S. \(2001\). "Job Satisfaction and Commitment of Two-year)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (College Part-time Faculty." )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 136.9200 0.0000 TD (Community College Journal of Research and Practice 25\(2\): 97-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -136.8600 -14.4000 TD (108.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The authors sought to examine the accuracy of the perception that part-time college)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (professors are frustrated academics; they also examined these individuals' satisfaction and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (commitment to their p)' 107.0400 0.0000 TD (rofessional role)Tj 74.1600 0.0000 TD (s, responsibilities)Tj 83.4000 0.0000 TD (, and rewards. E)Tj 80.4000 0.0000 TD (xploratory fact)Tj 70.8000 0.0000 TD (or analysis)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -415.7400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (was used to create a multidimensional description of job satisfaction. Data were taken from the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (National Study of Postsecondary Faculty \(NSOPF\). To assess job satisfaction, 15 items were)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (taken from the NSOPF questionnaire that dealt with how satisfied individuals were with various)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (aspects of their job. An exploratory principle-components factor analysis showed that 14 of)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (these items could b)' 92.2800 0.0000 TD (e grouped into one)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD ( of three dimensio)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (ns of satisfaction)Tj 81.2400 0.0000 TD (: satisfaction with)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -349.9200 -14.3400 TD (autonomy, satisfa)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD (ction with students,)Tj 93.7200 0.0000 TD ( and satisfaction)Tj 77.8800 0.0000 TD ( with demands and r)Tj 97.2000 0.0000 TD (ewards. Overa)Tj 72.0000 0.0000 TD (ll)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -425.3400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (satisfaction was the remaining item, and was left as a stand-alone variable representing a global)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (measure of satisfaction.)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (To measure the c)Tj 82.0800 0.0000 TD (ommitment level of th)Tj 107.0400 0.0000 TD (ese individuals the)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD ( authors selecte)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (d the statement,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -388.1400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ("If I had to do it all over again, I would still choose an academic career." This is representative of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (an individual's dedication to teaching; despite hardships associated with part-time work, he or)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (she would again ch)' 92.1600 0.0000 TD (oose an academi)Tj 79.0800 0.0000 TD (c career if giv)Tj 66.0000 0.0000 TD (en the opportunity.)Tj 90.9600 0.0000 TD ( Commitment was also)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -328.1400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (assessed by looking at an individual's response to items from the NSOPF questionnaire that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (asked faculty me)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (mbers to identify r)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (easons that would b)Tj 94.9200 0.0000 TD (e important if they)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD ( were to leave th)Tj 79.0800 0.0000 TD (eir)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -432.9600 -14.3400 TD (current position f)Tj 82.5600 0.0000 TD (or another. The a)Tj 84.7200 0.0000 TD (uthors found that pa)Tj 96.2400 0.0000 TD (rt-time faculty me)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (mbers are satisf)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (ied with)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -425.1600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (their roles, but are concerned with issues regarding salary, benefits, and long-term job security. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (The findings also sh)' 96.9600 0.0000 TD (owed a consistenc)Tj 87.1200 0.0000 TD (y regarding par)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD (t-time faculty mem)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (bers' commitment to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -349.0200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (their career choice.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Wang, J. \(1996\). )Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (Reassessing a Learning Gap: A Comparative Study of Student Science)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -92.8200 -14.4000 TD (Achievement in the U.S. and China. )Tj 177.8400 0.0000 TD ( Phi Delta Kappan 78: 234-239.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -177.8400 -14.4000 TD (Wang, J. \(1998\). )Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (International Achievement Comparison: Interesting Debates on Inconclusive)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -92.8200 -14.3400 TD (Findings. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 52.4400 0.0000 TD (School Science and Mathematics 98: 376-382.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -16.4400 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The author reviews arguments about a science )Tj 229.6800 0.0000 TD (learning gap )Tj 64.8000 0.0000 TD ( between the United States)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -330.4800 -14.4000 TD (and other nations. He also discusses the ways the TIMSS dataset can contribute to the learning)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (gap debate. According to Wang, previous international comparisons of science learning have)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (been challenge)' 71.4000 0.0000 TD (d on several grou)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (nds: methodologica)Tj 94.3200 0.0000 TD (l problems that lea)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (ve the data open t)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (o)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -421.9200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (competing interpretations, a lack of sensitivity to cultural differences between nations, and an)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (emphasis on summar)Tj 101.2800 0.0000 TD (y statistics that tur)Tj 87.7200 0.0000 TD (n international e)Tj 77.8800 0.0000 TD (ducational compa)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD (risons into a )Tj 66.9600 0.0000 TD (horse)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -418.6200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (race. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD (TIMSS improves on past data in several ways. Some questions were free-response rather)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (than multiple choice. The same students were tested in both math and science, allowing for)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (comparisons betw)' 86.8800 0.0000 TD (een subjects. Fur)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (ther, to better un)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (derstand cultura)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (l and contextual di)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (fferences,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -415.6800 -14.3400 TD (the main study was a)Tj 100.5600 0.0000 TD (ccompanied by two)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD ( other efforts in G)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (ermany, Japan, a)Tj 80.4000 0.0000 TD (nd the U.S.: Math)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -360.6000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (and science classrooms were \(a\) videotaped and \(b\) studied ethnographically. On the other ha)Tj 451.2000 0.0000 TD (nd,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -451.2000 -14.4000 TD (the TIMSS data set is not without its problems, which Wang enumerates at length. For example,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (the free-response items were hard to code accurately. Also, when teac)Tj 337.2000 0.0000 TD (hers participated in the)Tj ET endstream endobj 52 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 66 0 R /Contents 53 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 53 0 obj << /Length 7385 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (72)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (commitment. Among the background variables, gender had the strongest effect, indicating that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (female teachers feel more committed than male teachers. The study )Tj 327.1200 0.0000 TD (s findings indicate the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -327.1200 -14.4000 TD (importance of principals )Tj 121.0800 0.0000 TD ( leadership in enhancing teachers )Tj 162.8400 0.0000 TD ( commitment to the teaching)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -283.9200 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (profession and the)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD ( effect princip)Tj 67.0800 0.0000 TD (als can have on te)Tj 85.0800 0.0000 TD (achers collegia)Tj 71.4000 0.0000 TD (l relations. The r)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (esults suggest)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -390.6000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (the importance of clear expectations on the part of the principal and the communication of a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (vision and goals for)' 94.9200 0.0000 TD ( the school. The inf)Tj 95.8800 0.0000 TD (luence of princi)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (pal support/leade)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (rship on peer supp)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (ort in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -436.3200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (turn suggests that when principals foster shared goals, values, and professional support, teacher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (cooperation and)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD ( a supportive lear)Tj 82.7400 0.0000 TD (ning environment a)Tj 93.2400 0.0000 TD (re likely to result)Tj 81.6000 0.0000 TD (.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -334.3800 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Stage, F. \(In press\). )Tj 107.8800 0.0000 TD (Symbolic Discourse and Understanding in a College Mathematics)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -107.8200 -14.4000 TD (Classroom. )Tj 61.8000 0.0000 TD ( Journal of General Education.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -25.8000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Stage uses qualita)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (tive techniques to)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD ( investigate stude)Tj 83.2800 0.0000 TD (nts )Tj 18.0000 0.0000 TD ( understanding of)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD ( the symbolic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -391.6200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (discourse taking place in a college mathematics classroom. If mathematics is a formalized)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (language, as man)' 82.8000 0.0000 TD (y have describe)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (d it, then perhaps m)Tj 94.9200 0.0000 TD (isinterpretation)Tj 72.6000 0.0000 TD ( of that language b)Tj 89.1600 0.0000 TD (y students)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -413.8800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (leads to poor performance. This hypothesis has been supported in research at the elementary and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (secondary levels. Whether it applies at the college level needs to be understood because of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (students )Tj 43.3200 0.0000 TD ( high failure rate)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD (s in college math c)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (ourses.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -176.6400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The author conducted observations and made videotapes during a four-week segment of a )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.3400 TD (course in finite mathematics aimed at freshman business and social science majors. She then)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (interviewed selected students and the teacher. Her surprising finding is that some students can)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (explain the basic)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD ( concepts but do not)Tj 96.6000 0.0000 TD ( score well on test)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (s covering the mat)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (erial. The reve)Tj 72.3600 0.0000 TD (rse is)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -424.1400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (also true; some students get good grades but cannot explain the basic concepts being taught. The)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (reason, she suggests, is that )' 140.1600 0.0000 TD (students in this class and in many college level mathematics classes)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -140.1000 -14.3400 TD (are only asked to calculate. )Tj 135.2400 0.0000 TD ( Course evaluations are based solely on manipulation of numbers. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -135.2400 -14.4000 TD (No value is placed on a student )Tj 153.7200 0.0000 TD (s ability to understand the material on a theoretical level. The)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -153.6600 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (author questions a)Tj 87.2400 0.0000 TD ( calculation-onl)Tj 74.8200 0.0000 TD (y basis for gradin)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (g in low-level math)Tj 93.6000 0.0000 TD (ematics courses)Tj 75.4800 0.0000 TD (.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -414.7200 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Swanson, C. B. and Schneider, B. \(1999\). )Tj 208.9200 0.0000 TD (Students on the Move: Residential and Educational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -208.9200 -14.3400 TD (Mobility in America )Tj 100.5600 0.0000 TD (s Schools. )Tj 54.7200 0.0000 TD ( Sociology of Education 72: 54-67.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -155.2200 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The authors draw a conceptual distinction between two types of mobility experienced by)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (adolescents: residential mobility and educational mobility \(meaning a non-routine move from)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (one school to another\). They then conduct analyses examining the effects of these types of)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (mobility on academic achievement. They construct regression models utilizing data from)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (NELS:88-94.The f)' 89.8800 0.0000 TD (inding is that reside)Tj 94.3200 0.0000 TD (ntial and educati)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (onal mobility often h)Tj 101.0400 0.0000 TD (ave different e)Tj 69.0000 0.0000 TD (ffects)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -433.4400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (on achievement. In addition, the timing of a change matters. The worst kind of mobility, from)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (the point of view of student outcomes, is educational mobility that occurs after tenth grade. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Students who exper)Tj 94.5600 0.0000 TD (ience this type of)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD ( mobility are disadv)Tj 95.6400 0.0000 TD (antaged in terms o)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (f math achieveme)Tj 85.0200 0.0000 TD (nt,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -445.6200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (and have a higher risk of behavioral problems and dropping out. On the other hand, educational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (mobility that takes p)' 98.4000 0.0000 TD (lace between th)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (e eighth and tenth g)Tj 94.5600 0.0000 TD (rades is benefic)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (ial in terms of math)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -341.7000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (achievement and the long-term risk of dropping out. \(However, such students are at a higher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (short-term risk of dropping out.\))Tj ET endstream endobj 54 0 obj << /Type /Pages /Kids [ 46 0 R 44 0 R 42 0 R 36 0 R 3 1 R 154 0 R 151 0 R 148 0 R 145 0 R 137 0 R ] /Count 10 /Parent 2 0 R >> endobj 55 0 obj << /Type /Pages /Kids [ 7 0 R 17 0 R 22 0 R 130 0 R 128 0 R 126 0 R ] /Count 6 /Parent 2 0 R >> endobj 56 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 66 0 R /Contents 57 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 57 0 obj << /Length 8198 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (71)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (leadership in establishing curriculum remained unchanged for the most part. 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Further, AC minority teachers were more likely to teach at the elementary school level and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (less likely to have a background in math or science or consider teaching to be a life-long career)Tj 455.8800 0.0000 TD (. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -455.8800 -14.4000 TD (AC thus achieves some goals insofar as it positively impacts racial diversity and expands the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (teacher pool, bu)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (t it fails in attainin)Tj 88.0200 0.0000 TD (g diversity among ge)Tj 100.9200 0.0000 TD (nders or on the sc)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (hool level, or in its a)Tj 98.6400 0.0000 TD (ims)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -448.9200 -14.4000 TD (at attracting qua)Tj 77.1600 0.0000 TD (lified, long-term)Tj 78.6000 0.0000 TD ( minority teacher)Tj 81.8400 0.0000 TD (s.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -237.6000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Singh, K. and Billingsl)Tj 109.2000 0.0000 TD (ey, B. \(1998\). )Tj 77.5200 0.0000 TD (Professional Suppor)Tj 98.4000 0.0000 TD (t and Its Effects on Te)Tj 105.0000 0.0000 TD (achers )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -390.1200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Commitment. )Tj 71.0400 0.0000 TD ( The Journal of Educational Research 91\(4\): 229-239.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -70.9800 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Using data from the U.S. Department of Education )Tj 247.9200 0.0000 TD (s Schools and Schools and Staffing Survey)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -247.9200 -14.4000 TD (\(1987-88\), this paper examines the effects of professional support \(both principal and peer)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (support\) on public school teachers )' 168.3600 0.0000 TD ( commitment to the teaching profession. A 25% random)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -168.3600 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (sample of respond)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD (ents to the public sc)Tj 95.2800 0.0000 TD (hool teachers )Tj 67.4400 0.0000 TD ( survey was selec)Tj 83.4000 0.0000 TD (ted for analysis; t)Tj 82.9200 0.0000 TD (he sample)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.8200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (was further reduced by selecting only full-time employees. Latent variable structural equation)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (modeling was used to estimate cause-effect relationships among variables. 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Princip)Tj 101.4000 0.0000 TD (al support/leade)Tj 76.2000 0.0000 TD (rship \(measured)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD ( by items assessing c)Tj 99.9600 0.0000 TD (larity of expect)Tj 72.4800 0.0000 TD (ations,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.8400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (communication, and goals, teacher evaluation, staff recognition, principal support and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (encouragement, and principal help with teaching and instruction\) influenced professional)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (commitment not only directly but also indirectly through peer support. Background)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (variables )Tj 55.2000 0.0000 TD (gender, education, and experience )Tj 175.0800 0.0000 TD (showed small but significant effects on teacher)Tj ET endstream endobj 58 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 66 0 R /Contents 59 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 59 0 obj << /Length 7668 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (70)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (of competition into the preparation of teachers. Using cross-sectional data from the Schools and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Staffing Survey 19)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (93-94, the author)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD ( compares chara)Tj 77.6400 0.0000 TD (cteristics of alte)Tj 75.8400 0.0000 TD (rnative certifi)Tj 64.8000 0.0000 TD (cation \(AC\))Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -391.0200 -14.4000 TD (teachers with tr)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (aditionally certi)Tj 75.6000 0.0000 TD (fied \(TC\) teach)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD (ers and asks whet)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD (her AC policies ar)Tj 87.4200 0.0000 TD (e meeting their)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -394.0200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (goals. The author found little difference in gender composition or age distribution between AC)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (and TC teachers, though AC teachers were more likely to be minorities. 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AC te)' 94.9200 0.0000 TD (achers were mo)Tj 75.0000 0.0000 TD (re likely to teach)Tj 80.1600 0.0000 TD ( in secondary sch)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (ools, predominantl)Tj 90.0000 0.0000 TD (y)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -422.8800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (minority schools, and more likely to teach mathematics or science than their TC counterparts. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (However, AC teachers were less likely to consider teaching a life-long career)' 370.2000 0.0000 TD (. The author )Tj 65.1600 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -435.3600 -14.3400 TD (findings support the claims of AC proponents regarding mathematics and science instruction,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (racial diversity, and the alleviation of short-term teacher shortages in urban schools. However,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (findings on AC teacher educational backgrounds, the recruitment of experienced individuals, and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (AC teacher attitudes towards teaching contradict the claims of AC proponents. The author)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (argues that furt)Tj 72.4800 0.0000 TD (her research i)Tj 64.3200 0.0000 TD (nto the qualifica)Tj 77.8800 0.0000 TD (tions of AC teache)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (rs is required be)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (fore the succes)Tj 71.0400 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -451.9800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (of AC policies can be fully assessed. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Shen, J. \(1997\). )Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (The Evolution of Violence in Schools )Tj 184.3200 0.0000 TD ( Educational Leadership 55\(2\): 18-20.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -236.4600 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The author identifies the nature and severity of the violence in schools by examining)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (trends over the pa)Tj 85.4400 0.0000 TD (st few years for)Tj 74.0400 0.0000 TD ( both elementary a)Tj 88.8000 0.0000 TD (nd secondary sch)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (ools, and for scho)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (ols in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -415.9200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (rural, suburban, and urban communities. The National Center for Education Statistics has been)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (conducting a study of school problems since 1987. 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Secondary sch)Tj 83.7600 0.0000 TD (ool teachers gen)Tj 77.7600 0.0000 TD (erally tended to r)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (ate these)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -411.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (problems as being more severe than those teachers in elementary schools. He also found that the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (severity of nearly every type of problem decreased steadily from urban to suburban and fr)' 430.2000 0.0000 TD (om)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -430.2000 -14.4000 TD (suburban to rural schools. Teachers from all communities rated drug and alcohol problems as)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (equally serious. These results indicate that public schools have been becoming less safe over the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (last decade. To promote school safety, the author suggests that programs should focus on)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (different issues for elementary and secondary schools, and for schools in different communities. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Shen, J. \(1998\). )Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (Do Teachers Feel Empowered? )Tj 158.7600 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 3.0000 0.0000 TD (Educational Leadership 55\(7\): 35-36.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -213.9000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The National Center for Education Statistics has conducted surveys on leadership in the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (public school system since 1987. Teachers and principals have been asked to rate their influence)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (on selected schoolwide and classroom issues on a scale ranging from )Tj 339.0000 0.0000 TD (no influence at all )Tj 91.4400 0.0000 TD ( to )Tj 20.6400 0.0000 TD (a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -451.0800 -14.4000 TD (great deal of influence. )Tj 115.5600 0.0000 TD ( An analysis of these data revealed several trends in the perceptions of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -115.5600 -14.4000 TD (teachers and principals. Principals were found to perceive their own influence on schoolwide)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (issues to have incr)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (eased slightly ove)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (r the past few ye)Tj 79.0800 0.0000 TD (ars; principals )Tj 71.5200 0.0000 TD ( perceptions of th)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (eir)Tj ET endstream endobj 60 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 77 0 R /Contents 61 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 61 0 obj << /Length 7706 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (69)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Schneider, B., Swanson, C. B., and Riegle-Crumb, C. \(1998\). )Tj 308.8800 0.0000 TD (Opportunities for Learning:)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -308.8800 -14.3400 TD (Course Sequences and Positional Advantages. )Tj 229.5600 0.0000 TD ( Social Psychology of Education 2: 25-53.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -229.5600 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Do the course sequences taken by high school students have consequences for students )Tj 420.4800 0.0000 TD ( personal)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -420.4800 -14.3400 TD (lives and academic careers in secondary school and beyond? Using data from NELS:88-94,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (Schneider et al. examine the relationship between the math and science sequences taken by 10)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 451.3200 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.2600 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc (,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -456.9600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc -0.0600 Tw (11)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 12.0000 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (, and 12)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 38.2800 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw ( graders and ac)Tj 72.0000 0.0000 TD (ademic achieve)Tj 74.0400 0.0000 TD (ment and college a)Tj 90.1200 0.0000 TD (ttendance rate)Tj 66.7200 0.0000 TD (s. They take into)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -364.4400 -14.3400 TD (account how any c)Tj 89.4000 0.0000 TD (hange, routine or)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD ( non-routine \(i.e)Tj 77.5200 0.0000 TD (., the movement of a)Tj 98.5200 0.0000 TD ( student from a middl)Tj 103.3200 0.0000 TD (e)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -450.2400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (school into a corresponding high school upon graduation from middle school as opposed to a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (transfer from one high school to another\), may affect or alter the educational path of the student. )' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (They find that not only is the level of course sequence in 10)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 286.9200 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.2600 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( grade associated with the level of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -292.5600 -14.4000 TD (course sequence in 12)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 105.3600 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw ( grade, and with th)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (e relative aca)Tj 63.0000 0.0000 TD (demic success or)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD ( failure of the stu)Tj 81.8400 0.0000 TD (dent,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.4800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (but that transitions into and out of these sequences due to a non-routine change of school can)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (disrupt whatever)Tj 80.1600 0.0000 TD ( positional advanta)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (ge \(or disadvanta)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (ge\) the student mig)Tj 92.2800 0.0000 TD (ht have acquire)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD (d in his)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -418.5000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (previous schooling. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Shen, J. \(1997\). )Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (How to Reduce Teacher Attrition in Public Schools: Policy Implications from)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -91.1400 -14.4000 TD (a National Study. )Tj 90.4800 0.0000 TD ( Educational Horizons 76\(1\): 33-39.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -90.4200 -14.4000 TD (Shen, J. \(1997\). )Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (Teacher Retention and Attrition in Public Schools: Evidence from SASS91. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -88.1400 -14.3400 TD (Journal of Educational Research 91\(2\): 81-88.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The author reviews the literature on teacher attrition to develop an analytical framework which)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (assumes that teacher attrition is a function of individual and school-level factors as well as the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (interaction betw)Tj 77.5200 0.0000 TD (een these facto)Tj 71.0400 0.0000 TD (rs and teacher p)Tj 75.3600 0.0000 TD (erceptions. Usin)Tj 80.8800 0.0000 TD (g nationally repr)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (esentative data)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -384.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (from the Schools and Staffing Survey 1990-91 and the Teacher Follow-up Survey 1991-92, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (author examines t)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (he different fa)Tj 67.6800 0.0000 TD (ctors among teac)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (hers who either c)Tj 82.0800 0.0000 TD (ontinue teaching i)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (n the same)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -402.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (school, voluntarily move to another school, or voluntarily leave the teaching profession)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (altogether. The author finds that with the exception of number of years in teaching and salary,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (personal factors were not predictive of teacher attrition. Most school factors were also not)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (predictive of attrition or retention. A positive perception of the teaching profession and the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (ability to contribute to school policy were positively associated with teacher retention, whereas)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (teaching in a socially disadvantaged school, teaching in a school without a differential salary)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (structure, and teaching in a school with fewer experienced teachers wer)' 341.8800 0.0000 TD (e negatively associated)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -341.8800 -14.4000 TD (with retention. The author argues that teacher retention will be improved by implementing)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (policies which provide incentives to teach in socially disadvantaged schools, create a career)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (ladder for the teaching profession, and empower teachers in school and classroom policy)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (decisions. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Shen, J. \(1997\). )Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (Has the Alternative Certification Policy Materialized Its Promise? A)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -88.1400 -14.4000 TD (Comparison Between Traditionally and Alternatively Certified Teachers in Public Schools. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 19\(3\): 276-283.)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Proponents of alternative certification policies contend that such policies will alleviate teacher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (shortages in urba)Tj 81.8400 0.0000 TD (n schools and in the)Tj 95.2800 0.0000 TD ( fields of mathema)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (tics and science)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (, provide opportun)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (ities to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -430.6800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (particularly knowledgeable and competent individuals who would otherwise not be able to teach,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (diversify the racial, gender, and age composition of the teaching force, and introduce an ele)Tj 437.8800 0.0000 TD (ment)Tj ET endstream endobj 62 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 77 0 R /Contents 63 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 63 0 obj << /Length 7684 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (68)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (family structure, and socioeconomic status \(SES\) foster attitudinal and learning differences, and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (lowered aspirations and motivations among black students relative to whites. This approach, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (author argues, is)Tj 78.8400 0.0000 TD ( limited by its failur)Tj 95.4000 0.0000 TD (e to account for g)Tj 83.7600 0.0000 TD (eographical va)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (riation in levels of)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD ( inequality)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -415.6800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (and the structured processes which reproduce them. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 253.6800 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Classroom/school structured)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 139.0800 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf ( approaches)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -392.7000 -14.4000 TD (acknowledge forms of inequality that remain neglected in individualistic approaches. Teacher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (expectations, resource allocation, and ability grouping, for example, suggest structural)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (disadvantages within the current system. However, the author finds that such approaches ignore)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (the fact that whatever goes on within a classroom or school is embedded within a local social)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (context. 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He argues that studies)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (of racial inequality processes must take into consideration political-economic situations and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (histories. Racial ideologies and material distribution constitute the political-economic factors. )' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (These are local, and shape the processes through which the racial context emerges a)Tj 401.5200 0.0000 TD (nd)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -401.4600 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (reproduces itse)Tj 72.1200 0.0000 TD (lf. Thus, analyse)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (s of educational o)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD (utcomes in studies o)Tj 97.6200 0.0000 TD (f racial inequa)Tj 68.4000 0.0000 TD (lity must)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -405.2400 -14.4000 TD (take into consider)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (ation the differe)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD (nt processes whic)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (h produce them.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -246.1200 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Rumberger, R. W. \()Tj 93.1200 0.0000 TD (1995\). )Tj 40.6800 0.0000 TD (Dropping Out of Middl)Tj 111.7200 0.0000 TD (e School: A Multile)Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (vel Analysis of Stud)Tj 94.3200 0.0000 TD (ents)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -432.7200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (and Schools. )Tj 68.0400 0.0000 TD ( American Educational Research Journal 32: 583-625.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -32.0400 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Pointing out that most studies of the determinants of dropping out of school focus on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (either individual-level or school-level predictors, but not both, the author uses data from the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (NELS 1988 base year and 1990 follow-up to construct and test a comprehensive model of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (dropping out that includes factors at both levels. Also, where most dropout research focuses on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (the high school, he)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD ( predicts dropping)Tj 87.2400 0.0000 TD ( out of middle school)Tj 102.0000 0.0000 TD (.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -243.7800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (At the individual level, the factor with the largest substantive effect on the odds of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (dropping out is havin)Tj 102.3600 0.0000 TD (g been held back a)Tj 89.0400 0.0000 TD ( year, which qua)Tj 79.0800 0.0000 TD (druples the odds of)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD ( dropping out. Some)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -362.0400 -14.3400 TD (of the other impor)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (tant factors that)Tj 74.5200 0.0000 TD ( increase the odd)Tj 80.7600 0.0000 TD (s of dropping out inc)Tj 99.9600 0.0000 TD (lude high absente)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (eism;)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (low family socioeconomic status; being female; low parental academic support, supervision, and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (educational expectations; changing schools; student misbehavior at school; and poor grades and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (test scores. In general, the individual-level factors that predict dropping out vary from one racial)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (or ethnic group to a)' 93.8400 0.0000 TD (nother. This sugge)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (sts that a )Tj 50.2800 0.0000 TD (one size fits all )Tj 77.5200 0.0000 TD ( approach to the p)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (roblem will)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -399.3600 -14.4000 TD (not work, particu)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (larly at the nation)Tj 84.2400 0.0000 TD (al level.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -130.4400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (At the school level, the background characteristics of students explain one-third of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (variability in school dropout rates. Beyond the individual effects of student background)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (characteristics, schools with lower mean socioeconomic status and high minority concentrations)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (have students who a)Tj 96.8400 0.0000 TD (re more likely to dr)Tj 92.5200 0.0000 TD (op out. Student perc)Tj 99.6000 0.0000 TD (eptions that the disc)Tj 95.6400 0.0000 TD (ipline policy is)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -384.6000 -14.4000 TD (fair lower the dr)Tj 77.4000 0.0000 TD (opout rate, as doe)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (s attending a non-C)Tj 93.6000 0.0000 TD (atholic religious s)Tj 85.3200 0.0000 TD (chool. Among schoo)Tj 102.6000 0.0000 TD (ls)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -443.3400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (with a low average socioeconomic status, important factors that increase the odds of dropping)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (out include a high concentration of minorities, larger school size, )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 314.8800 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (lower)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 27.3600 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf ( student-teacher ratio,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -342.2400 -14.4000 TD (lower average amount of homework, and lower perceptions of a fair discipline policy.)Tj ET endstream endobj 64 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 77 0 R /Contents 65 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 65 0 obj << /Length 7343 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (67)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (be meaningfully a)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (nd readily communi)Tj 96.6000 0.0000 TD (cated to others, i)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (t is recommended th)Tj 97.5600 0.0000 TD (at attention be pa)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (id to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -442.0800 -14.3400 TD (integrating IRT gr)Tj 87.2400 0.0000 TD (aphical methods in)Tj 90.5400 0.0000 TD (to teacher, stude)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD (nt, and public polic)Tj 92.6400 0.0000 TD (y assessments.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -348.6000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Roscigno, V. J. \(1998\). )Tj 119.8800 0.0000 TD (Race and Reproduction of Educational Disadvantage. )Tj 266.5200 0.0000 TD ( Social Forces)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -386.3400 -14.4000 TD (76\(3\): 1033-60.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Extensive previo)' 80.8800 0.0000 TD (us research ha)Tj 67.6800 0.0000 TD (s identified parti)Tj 78.6000 0.0000 TD (cular mechanism)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (s and processes w)Tj 85.4400 0.0000 TD (hich contribute)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -394.0200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (to and perpetuate racial inequality in education. The author focuses on the multi-tiered and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (interconnected institutional character of these processes, linking both family/peer processes and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (educational institutional processes to the racial achievement gap in education as measured by)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (standardized scores in reading and math. Drawing on data from the National Educational)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Longitudinal Study and the Common Core of Data and employing a modeling strategy which)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (allows for a more integrated examination of the patterns of inequality, the author considers)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (factors bearin)Tj 65.4000 0.0000 TD (g on racial educ)Tj 76.0800 0.0000 TD (ational inequality)Tj 83.6400 0.0000 TD ( which focus on fa)Tj 88.4400 0.0000 TD (mily background. T)Tj 97.9200 0.0000 TD (hese)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -411.4800 -14.4000 TD (include household)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD ( socioeconomic sta)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (tus \(SES\), familial s)Tj 96.7200 0.0000 TD (tructure, and the)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD ( consequent avai)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (lability)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -433.4400 -14.4000 TD (of resources, p)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (arental involvem)Tj 80.8800 0.0000 TD (ent, child socializ)Tj 84.2400 0.0000 TD (ation, and peer g)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (roup influence.)Tj 72.4800 0.0000 TD ( He includes in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -387.4800 -14.3400 TD (his model factors p)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD (ertaining to educ)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (ational institutions e)Tj 97.4400 0.0000 TD (xplicitly, including)Tj 91.4400 0.0000 TD ( race and class)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -360.9000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (segregation, material resource differences among schools, the consequences of a)Tj 385.2000 0.0000 TD (bility grouping,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -385.2000 -14.4000 TD (and diminished teacher expectations. The author sets up a model which draws out the linkages)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (between family background and structure and educational institutional processes, revealing that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (family and peer attributes factor into the patterning of educational achievement. The institution)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (of education shapes achievement through the stratification and segregation of students, through)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (the formation of expectations, and through resource allocation. The institution of education at)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (least partially reproduces the inequalities with which children walk into school, thus replicating)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (the initial conditions of inequality. The author concludes that educational institutional processes)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (are vulnerable to patterns of family stratification and thus there is a significant interconnection)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (between both family and peer group influence and educational influences in reproducing rac)Tj 442.2000 0.0000 TD (ial)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -442.2000 -14.4000 TD (educational disadvantages. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -43.2000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Roscigno, V. J. \(1995\). )Tj 119.8800 0.0000 TD (The Social Embeddedness of Racial Educational Inequality: The Black-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -119.8200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (White Gap and the I)Tj 97.2000 0.0000 TD (mpact of Racial and L)Tj 106.6800 0.0000 TD (ocal Political-Ec)Tj 81.6000 0.0000 TD (onomic Contexts. )Tj 90.0000 0.0000 TD ( Research in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -375.4800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Social Stratification and Mobility 14:135-165.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The literature on racial educational inequality details a wide range of mechanisms and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (processes which exacerbate educational inequality among different racial groups. The)Tj 413.8800 0.0000 TD ( author)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -413.8800 -14.3400 TD (finds, however, that existing research fails to offer a broad theoretical framework thr)Tj 404.8800 0.0000 TD (ough which)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -404.8800 -14.4000 TD (regional variations in inequality can be understood. The author proposes an alternative to what)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (he sees as the limiting nature of both the )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 196.8000 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (individualistic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 68.7600 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( and )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 23.2800 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (classroom/school structured)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -288.7800 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (approaches to un)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (derstanding inequ)Tj 85.5600 0.0000 TD (ality. He presen)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (ts an integrated th)Tj 85.5600 0.0000 TD (eoretical fram)Tj 66.7200 0.0000 TD (ework in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -397.3800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (which individual or immediate sources of educational racial inequality are conceptualized as)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (occurring within racial and local-political economic contexts. This allows for a more inclusive)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (and thorough theoretical account of what is actually occurring.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Individualistic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 69.3600 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( approaches to understanding racial educational inequality focus on the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -105.3600 -14.3400 TD (background characteristics of black students. They argue that culture, peer group pressure)Tj 432.8400 0.0000 TD (,)Tj ET endstream endobj 66 0 obj << /Type /Pages /Kids [ 58 0 R 56 0 R 52 0 R 50 0 R 48 0 R ] /Count 5 /Parent 2 0 R >> endobj 67 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 77 0 R /Contents 68 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 68 0 obj << /Length 7075 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (66)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (their analyses come from the National Center for Education Statistics )Tj 336.4800 0.0000 TD ( 1987-1988 Schools and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -336.4200 -14.3400 TD (Staffing Survey. The results of their study suggest that there is in fact no association between the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (characteristics of the task environment and a commitment to teaching. School climate variables)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (were more strongly linked to professional commitment. The authors also found that: female and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (minority teachers reported more commitment to school goals; both professional commitment)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (and commitment to sc)' 106.3200 0.0000 TD (hool goals seem unr)Tj 96.2400 0.0000 TD (elated to teache)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (r work effort; a)Tj 72.7200 0.0000 TD (nd teachers cho)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (se to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -424.0800 -14.3400 TD (spend more time on s)Tj 102.6000 0.0000 TD (chool work when th)Tj 95.5200 0.0000 TD (ey reported bein)Tj 77.7600 0.0000 TD (g helped by fellow)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD ( teachers.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -365.3400 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Riordan, C. \(1994\). )Tj 107.0400 0.0000 TD (The Value of Attending a Women )Tj 162.8400 0.0000 TD (s College: Education, Occupation, and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -269.8800 -14.4000 TD (Income Benefits. )Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD ( The Journal of Higher Education 65: 486-510.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -86.5200 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (It is folk wisdom as w)Tj 106.3200 0.0000 TD (ell as )Tj 31.9200 0.0000 TD (proven )Tj 37.2000 0.0000 TD ( fact that single-)Tj 77.5200 0.0000 TD (sex schooling is les)Tj 93.0000 0.0000 TD (s distracting for s)Tj 82.9200 0.0000 TD (tudents,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -428.8800 -14.3400 TD (especially fema)Tj 74.7600 0.0000 TD (le students. Single-)Tj 94.6800 0.0000 TD (sex schooling is oft)Tj 93.0000 0.0000 TD (en touted as a more)Tj 93.1200 0.0000 TD ( nurturing and less)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -355.5600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (competitive atmosphere in which to educate women. Co-educational schools are said to foster)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (the same male domination that exists in society as a whole. Critics of mixed-sex schools argue)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (that women are he)' 88.0800 0.0000 TD (ld back, demeane)Tj 83.4000 0.0000 TD (d, and are not tak)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (en as seriously as)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD ( their male counte)Tj 86.1600 0.0000 TD (rparts in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -423.9600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (co-educational atmospheres. In this article, the author reconsiders these long-held beliefs by)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (examining the academic and financial achievements of women with 1 to 6 years of single-sex)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (higher education. Using data from the Longitudinal Study of American Youth \(LSAY\), he)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (assigns an effect to each year of single-sex schooling and applies it to the achievements of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (women in his sample. Riordan acknowledges that a factor which might skew his results is the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (selectivity of single-sex schools, but he assures us that the colleges which the women in his study)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (attended span a wide range of academic selectivity. He concludes that women who attend a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (single-sex college for even one year are more likely to attain greater amounts of educa)' 413.5200 0.0000 TD (tion than)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -413.4600 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (those women who ne)Tj 101.5200 0.0000 TD (ver attend a singl)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (e-sex college. I)Tj 75.7200 0.0000 TD (n addition, he finds)Tj 92.6400 0.0000 TD ( a considerable i)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD (ncrease)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -430.2000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (in occupational prestige and personal income for each year of attendance at a)Tj 368.8800 0.0000 TD ( women's college.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -368.8800 -57.5400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Roberts, L. \(2000\). )Tj 103.6800 0.0000 TD (Using Criterion-Referenced Maps To Produce Meaningful Evaluation)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -103.6800 -14.4000 TD (Measures: Evaluating Changes in Middle School Science Teacher )Tj 321.8400 0.0000 TD (s Assessment Perceptions and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -321.8400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Practices. )Tj 54.9600 0.0000 TD ( Pp. 41-63 in M. Wilso)Tj 108.9600 0.0000 TD (n and J. Ingelhard,)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD ( Jr. \(eds.\) Objec)Tj 77.4000 0.0000 TD (tive Measureme)Tj 76.0800 0.0000 TD (nt: Theory)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -408.9600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (into Practice. Stamford, CT: Ablex.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg /F6 12.0000 Tf (Two problems facing educational professionals are the evaluation and dissemination of curricular)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (reform programs and efforts. Partial credit model item maps derived from Rasch IRT techniques)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (provide a conven)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (ient and accessi)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (ble means of not onl)Tj 97.9200 0.0000 TD (y monitoring progra)Tj 96.6000 0.0000 TD (m effectivenes)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (s but also)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -422.1600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (communicating the results of student and teacher evaluations to various stakeholders in the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (educational system. Basic IRT techniques are illustrated using an extended example based on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (data from an assessment development program conducted as part of the Science Education for)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Public Understanding Program \(SEPUP\). Particular attention is paid to scale construction,)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (statistical reliability, reading and interpreting item maps, and evaluating cross-group differences)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (in important policy p)Tj 101.0400 0.0000 TD (arameters. Empi)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (rical findings sug)Tj 83.2800 0.0000 TD (gest that teache)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (rs are not likely to)Tj 87.2400 0.0000 TD ( use)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.8400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (embedded assessment tasks, scoring guides, and other program features without some form of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (preparation and ongoing support structure. Since evaluation is only likely to be useful if it can)Tj ET endstream endobj 69 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 77 0 R /Contents 70 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 70 0 obj << /Length 7310 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (65)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (as a proxy for a class )Tj 104.6400 0.0000 TD (s average socioeconomic status and average achievement level. However,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -104.6400 -14.3400 TD (the smallest 20 percent of all math classes have relatively high achievement in the U.S., and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (relatively low achievement in Hong Kong and Singapore. The reason why small classes have)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (low achievement in the East Asian nations is that small classes are nearly always remedial)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (classes.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Post, D. and Pong, S. \(2000a\). )Tj 153.9600 0.0000 TD (International Policies on Early Adolescent Employment: An)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -153.9600 -14.4000 TD (Evaluation from the United States and TIMSS Participant Nations. )Tj 327.8400 0.0000 TD ( International Journal of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -327.7800 -14.4000 TD (Educational Policy, Research and Practice 1: 153-170.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Post, D. and Pong, S.)' 103.3200 0.0000 TD ( \(2000b\). )Tj 50.6400 0.0000 TD (Employment During)Tj 97.5600 0.0000 TD ( Middle School: The)Tj 97.5600 0.0000 TD ( Effects on Academ)Tj 92.1600 0.0000 TD (ic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -441.2400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Achievement in the U.S. and Abroad. )Tj 184.4400 0.0000 TD ( Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 22: 273-298.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -148.4400 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (The authors use da)Tj 90.1200 0.0000 TD (ta from NELS:88 and)Tj 103.5600 0.0000 TD ( TIMSS to look at the c)Tj 112.6800 0.0000 TD (ross-national re)Tj 74.1600 0.0000 TD (lationship)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.4600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (of employment during eighth grade \(or the corresponding age internationally\) to math and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (science achievement scores. They employ regression models that control for the effects of)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (background factors and past grades. The authors find that internationally, )' 359.2800 0.0000 TD (for boys, and to a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -359.2200 -14.3400 TD (lesser extent for girls, there are negative effects on math and science achie)Tj 355.2000 0.0000 TD (vement that are)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -355.1400 -14.4000 TD (associated with adolescent employment, even after controlling for family background and, in the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (NELS, after controlling for prior achievement. )' 228.4800 0.0000 TD ( Using the longitudinal component of NELS, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.4800 -14.3400 TD (authors also report that, at least in the U.S., eighth grade work has lasting negative effects on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (high school achie)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (vement. High schoo)Tj 99.2400 0.0000 TD (l employment result)Tj 96.0000 0.0000 TD (s in similar negativ)Tj 91.6800 0.0000 TD (e effects only if)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -370.7400 -14.3400 TD (pursued for long h)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (ours.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -52.1400 -14.4000 TD (Breaking down the)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD ( international da)Tj 77.8800 0.0000 TD (ta by country, the)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD ( authors find a neg)Tj 89.1600 0.0000 TD (ative relationshi)Tj 76.9200 0.0000 TD (p)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -455.0400 -14.4000 TD (between eighth gr)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (ade employment an)Tj 93.7800 0.0000 TD (d contemporaneo)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (us math achieveme)Tj 91.8000 0.0000 TD (nt in 14 of 23 nations,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -354.2400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (including the United States. There is a positive interaction between employment and being)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (female, indicati)Tj 74.5200 0.0000 TD (ng that girls are le)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (ss harmed than boy)Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (s by employment. The)Tj 110.2800 0.0000 TD ( evidence sugges)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (ts)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -445.3200 -14.3400 TD (that this is because)Tj 90.2400 0.0000 TD ( girls are far le)Tj 69.7200 0.0000 TD (ss likely than boys to)Tj 101.4000 0.0000 TD ( be steadily employ)Tj 93.6000 0.0000 TD (ed for long hours.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -318.9600 -28.8000 TD (Although U.S. eighth)Tj 102.7200 0.0000 TD ( graders perfor)Tj 70.3200 0.0000 TD (med more poorly on t)Tj 103.9200 0.0000 TD (he TIMSS tests than th)Tj 110.0400 0.0000 TD (eir)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -423.0000 -14.3400 TD (counterparts in m)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (any other nations,)Tj 85.5600 0.0000 TD ( the authors discov)Tj 90.2400 0.0000 TD (er that employed U)Tj 92.1600 0.0000 TD (.S. students did nea)Tj 93.0000 0.0000 TD (rly)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -444.8400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (as well as employed students in the highest achieving countries. They conclude that the U.S. )Tj 450.1200 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -450.1200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (poor overall per)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD (formance is par)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (tially due to the high)Tj 99.3600 0.0000 TD ( rate of youth empl)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (oyment.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -341.3400 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Riehl, C. and Sipple, J. W. \(1996\). )Tj 177.2400 0.0000 TD (Making the Most of Time and Talent: Secondary School)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -177.2400 -14.4000 TD (Organizational Climates, Teaching Task Environments, and Teacher Commitment. )Tj 405.3600 0.0000 TD ( American)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -405.3600 -14.3400 TD (Educational Research Journal 33\(4\): 873-901.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Across the country teachers are in short supply. Given this fact, research into the sources of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (teacher satisfaction and the incentives that keep them in the teaching profession is vital. The)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (authors address this issue by identifying factors that contribute to teacher commitment. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Specifically, they hypothesize that teacher commitment, defined as a personal and professional)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (dedication, is inf)Tj 80.2800 0.0000 TD (luenced by the wo)Tj 87.4800 0.0000 TD (rk environment. I)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (f teacher commit)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (ment is indeed rela)Tj 90.8400 0.0000 TD (ted to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.2400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (school environment, teacher satisfaction could be improved and a greater retention of teacher)Tj 446.5200 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -446.5200 -14.4000 TD (might be possible. The authors of this paper look at the daily teaching schedule, an indicator of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (the teacher task environment, in order to determine its effects on teacher commitment. Data for)Tj ET endstream endobj 71 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 88 0 R /Contents 72 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 72 0 obj << /Length 7643 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (64)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (effect. \(Pong defines social capital )Tj 176.5200 0.0000 TD (in Coleman )Tj 59.6400 0.0000 TD (s sense of parents )Tj 88.0800 0.0000 TD ( involvement with the school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -324.2400 -14.3400 TD (and parents )Tj 58.8000 0.0000 TD ( social networks. )Tj 86.1600 0.0000 TD ( Accordingly, her measures of social capital are parental)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -144.9600 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (participation in sc)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (hool and parenta)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (l acquaintance w)Tj 80.4000 0.0000 TD (ith other parents)Tj 77.8800 0.0000 TD (.\) While students in)Tj 96.9600 0.0000 TD ( schools)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -420.9000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (with a high concentration of single parent and stepfamilies are disadvantaged on average, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (disadvantage is of)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (fset for students w)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (hose parents main)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (tain strong social t)Tj 88.3200 0.0000 TD (ies to other pare)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (nts.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.3600 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Pong, S, and Ju, D. \(2000\). )Tj 137.8800 0.0000 TD (The Effects of Change in Family Structure and Income on Dropping)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -137.8200 -14.4000 TD (Out of Middle and High School. )Tj 160.6800 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Family Issues 21: 147-169.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -160.6200 -14.4000 TD ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 33.0000 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Studies have repeatedly linked family disruption with a greater risk of children dropping)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -33.0000 -14.4000 TD (out of school. One popular explanation, the )Tj 219.0000 0.0000 TD (economic deprivation )Tj 109.4400 0.0000 TD ( argument made by)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -328.4400 -14.4000 TD (McLanahan, holds that family disruption means fewer economic resources for children, which)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (increases the r)Tj 68.4000 0.0000 TD (isk of dropping out.)Tj 94.6800 0.0000 TD ( An alternative th)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (esis, the )Tj 46.9200 0.0000 TD (persistent pover)Tj 76.2000 0.0000 TD (ty )Tj 14.6400 0.0000 TD ( argument,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -387.3600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (suggests that pre-existing economic deprivation tends to lead to both family breakup )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 408.2400 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 18.0000 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf ( a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.2400 -14.4000 TD (greater risk of dropping out. To untangle this )Tj 227.0400 0.0000 TD (chicken or egg )Tj 75.7200 0.0000 TD ( problem, the authors employ a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -302.7000 -14.4000 TD (sub-sample of students from the NELS:88 dataset who lived with both parents while attending)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (eighth grade. Logistic regression models are used to test whether students )Tj 360.1200 0.0000 TD ( initial family income,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -360.0600 -14.4000 TD (or the loss of income associated with family disruption, explains more of the risk of dropping)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (out.)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The results suggest that both explanations of the link between family disruption and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (dropping out are p)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (artially correc)Tj 66.7200 0.0000 TD (t. Consistent with the)Tj 105.1200 0.0000 TD ( economic depriva)Tj 88.4400 0.0000 TD (tion argument, fa)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (mily)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -430.6800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (disruption is associated with a loss of income, on average, and loss of family income between)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (eighth and twelfth grade increases children )Tj 209.7600 0.0000 TD (s chances of dropping out. Consistent with the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -209.7600 -14.4000 TD (persistent poverty thesis, families that experienced disruption started out with lower incomes on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (average, and lower family income in eighth grade is also associated with a higher risk of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (dropping out.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Pong, S. and Pallas, A. \(In press\). )Tj 173.2800 0.0000 TD (Class Size and Eighth-grade Math Achievement in the U.S.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -173.2200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (and Abroad. )Tj 66.7200 0.0000 TD ( Educational Evalua)Tj 98.6400 0.0000 TD (tion and Policy Anal)Tj 99.0000 0.0000 TD (ysis.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.3600 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (In the United States, evidence from )Tj 177.9600 0.0000 TD (Project STAR )Tj 72.9600 0.0000 TD ( and other studies consistently shows)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -286.9200 -14.4000 TD (that small classes promote academic achievement in the early grades. In this article, the authors)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (investigate the effect of class size on math achievement in the later grades. A question of)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (particular interest is the process by which small class size is translated into higher achievement. )' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Two mechanisms are proposed: fuller coverage of the material, and the use of small groups as)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (compared to whole-class instruction.)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD (The authors analyze data from nine countries that participated in the TIMSS study: three)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (English-speaking nations, three European nations, and three East Asian nations. When)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (individual-level b)Tj 84.9600 0.0000 TD (ackground varia)Tj 77.4000 0.0000 TD (bles are control)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (led, class size ha)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (s a significant ef)Tj 78.8400 0.0000 TD (fect on math)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -394.8000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (achievement in four of these nine nations. Surprisingly, )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 272.0400 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (larger)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 30.0000 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf ( class sizes are always associated)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -302.0400 -14.4000 TD (with )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 24.3600 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (higher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 31.3200 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw ( average math te)Tj 78.7200 0.0000 TD (st scores in these)Tj 80.8800 0.0000 TD ( four nations. \(In)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD ( the United States, t)Tj 94.3200 0.0000 TD (he relationship)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -393.1200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (between class size and achievement is negative but nonsignificant.\) The effect of class size is not)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (mediated by either curricular coverage or instructional technique.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD (When class-level background variables are also controlled, class size no longer explains)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.3400 TD (math achievement in any of the nine nations studied. In particular, class size seems to be serving)Tj ET endstream endobj 73 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 88 0 R /Contents 74 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 74 0 obj << /Length 7659 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (63)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (as HBCUs\) are vital in the education of black students, and that they have continued to be)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (successful in this a)Tj 90.2400 0.0000 TD (rea despite the l)Tj 75.4800 0.0000 TD (ower levels of fu)Tj 80.7600 0.0000 TD (nding, academic)Tj 78.4200 0.0000 TD ( preparation, an)Tj 74.7600 0.0000 TD (d family)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -399.7200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (income levels of their incoming students. Nevertheless, the future of HBCUs has been)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (challenged as of late in the courts and state legislatures as they can be viewed as a remnant of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (segregation. Using data from the 1992 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty, the author)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (seeks to inspect one area in which it may be said that HBCUs contribute: the preparation of)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (African Americans for faculty careers. The author uses two measure)Tj 326.8800 0.0000 TD (s of preparation: \(1\))Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -326.8800 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (research prod)Tj 64.6800 0.0000 TD (uctivity, and \(2\) s)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD (atisfaction in the)Tj 79.9200 0.0000 TD ( work setting. 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The results of descriptive)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (analyses suggest that HBCUs may be especially important producers of African American)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (faculty in the fields of education and science, mathematics, and engineering. 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Non)Tj 94.2000 0.0000 TD (etheless, the aut)Tj 76.2000 0.0000 TD (hor concludes tha)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (t HBCUs continue to pl)Tj 113.4000 0.0000 TD (ay an important ro)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (le)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -456.4800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (in preparing African-American faculty and that the results of this study should be used to guide)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (future research on ways to further increase the flow of African-)Tj 302.8800 0.0000 TD (Americans along the educational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -302.8200 -14.4000 TD (pipeline. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Pong, S. \(1997\). )Tj 87.9600 0.0000 TD (Family Structure, School Context, and Eighth-grade Math and Reading)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -87.9600 -14.4000 TD (Achievement. )Tj 70.8000 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Marriage and the Family 59: 734-746.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -70.8000 -14.4000 TD (Pong, S. \(1998\). )Tj 87.9600 0.0000 TD (The School Compositional Effect of Single-parenthood on Tenth-grade)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -87.9600 -14.4000 TD (Achievement. )Tj 70.8000 0.0000 TD ( Sociology of Education 71: 24-43.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -34.8000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Whereas past research into the effects of family structure on student achievement has)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (restricted itself)Tj 71.5200 0.0000 TD ( to the level of the)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD ( individual family, t)Tj 95.4000 0.0000 TD (he author asks whe)Tj 91.4400 0.0000 TD (ther there is a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -345.2400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (compositional effect of attending a school with a high concentration of children who do not live)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (with two biological parents. Employing data from the NELS:88 eighth grade sample, Pong)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (categorizes schools based on the concentration of students who live in single parent families and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (stepfamilies. She then constructs regression models to look at the effects of concentration on)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (school-wide student achievement, controlling for other characteristics of the student body.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Pong discovers tha)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (t math and reading)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD ( achievement sco)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (res tend to be lowe)Tj 90.4800 0.0000 TD (r in schools)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -389.0400 -14.4000 TD (with a high concen)Tj 90.8400 0.0000 TD (tration of childre)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (n who do not live with t)Tj 114.7200 0.0000 TD (wo biological par)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (ents. Parents )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -369.9000 -14.3400 TD (average socioe)Tj 70.6800 0.0000 TD (conomic status and)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD ( level of social c)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (apital largely, b)Tj 74.8800 0.0000 TD (ut not entirely, ex)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD (plain this)Tj ET endstream endobj 75 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 88 0 R /Contents 76 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 76 0 obj << /Length 7361 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (62)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (the gap. Finally, the)Tj 98.6400 0.0000 TD ( authors focused)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD ( upon the concept o)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD (f locus of control)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (. Though mostly)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -353.1600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (influential before high school matriculation, locus of control was strongly and positively related)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (to achievement st)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (atus. Students with h)Tj 103.0800 0.0000 TD (igher internal loc)Tj 81.8400 0.0000 TD (us-of-control a)Tj 70.8000 0.0000 TD (chieved more tha)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (n those)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -422.0400 -14.3400 TD (with a lower inter)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD (nal or a high exter)Tj 87.1200 0.0000 TD (nal locus-of-co)Tj 72.1200 0.0000 TD (ntrol.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -244.0800 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Niemi, R. G., Hepburn, M. and Chapman, C. \(2001\). )Tj 268.5600 0.0000 TD (Community Service for High School)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -268.5000 -14.3400 TD (Students: A Cure for Civic Ills? )Tj 158.4000 0.0000 TD ( Political Behavior 22\(1\):45-69.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -158.3400 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Some critics argue that America has entered a crisis period with respect to civic participation. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (According to several researchers, young adults are especially indifferent, distrustful, and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (politically disenga)' 88.3200 0.0000 TD (ged, suggesting tha)Tj 92.2800 0.0000 TD (t there may be eve)Tj 87.7200 0.0000 TD (n greater attrit)Tj 67.8000 0.0000 TD (ion in civic involve)Tj 93.0000 0.0000 TD (ment in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -429.1200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (the future. Involving high school students and young adults in public service has been high on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (the list of recommendations for responding to this situation. Until recently, however, there have)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (been few reports about the extent of community service, and even fewer appraisals of w)Tj 421.2000 0.0000 TD (hat)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -421.2000 -14.4000 TD (students learn from such service. Using data from the National Household Education Survey)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (\(1996\), the authors examine the extent and effects of community participation by American high)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (school students. They look first at overall levels of participation and, using logistic regression)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (analysis, examine the ways in which participation rates relate to the characteristics of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (students themselve)' 90.9600 0.0000 TD (s, their families,)Tj 77.2800 0.0000 TD ( and their schools.)Tj 87.2400 0.0000 TD ( Using multivariate)Tj 95.6400 0.0000 TD ( regression tech)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (niques,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.2400 -14.3400 TD (they then conside)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (r whether partic)Tj 75.7200 0.0000 TD (ipation is linked to gr)Tj 102.7200 0.0000 TD (eater political k)Tj 74.5200 0.0000 TD (nowledge, attent)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (ion to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.0400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (news, participation skills, and efficacy. Results of the study indicate that half to two-thirds of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (high school students participate in community service in any given year. However, the amount)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (of participation is minimal; the overwhelming majority of students participate once or twice or a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (few hours total. Students who were less active in community service received lower grades, and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (their parents were less likely to be involved in community service. When community service)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (was regular and sustained, students more often absorbed the lessons related to community service)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (such as greater political knowledge, more attention to politics, enhanced participation skills, and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (higher political e)Tj 81.2400 0.0000 TD (fficacy. The a)Tj 69.0000 0.0000 TD (uthors conclude th)Tj 88.5600 0.0000 TD (at while it has cons)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (iderable potenti)Tj 74.8800 0.0000 TD (al,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -405.5400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (community service as practiced among today )Tj 220.5600 0.0000 TD (s high school students is not a civic education cure-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -220.5600 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (all.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Peng, So, Stage, an)Tj 93.2400 0.0000 TD (d St. John \(In pres)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (s\). The Use and Inte)Tj 99.8400 0.0000 TD (rpretation of Logistic)Tj 102.8400 0.0000 TD ( Regression in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -384.1200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Higher Education Journals: 1988-1999. )Tj 199.9200 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -199.9200 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The authors reviewed three leading education journals from 1988 to 1999 and found 52 articles)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (that used logistic regression techniques. Despite the popularity of logistic regression in recent)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (years, confusio)Tj 72.4800 0.0000 TD (n continues to exist)Tj 93.0000 0.0000 TD ( over terms, conc)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (epts, practices)Tj 67.8000 0.0000 TD (, and interpreta)Tj 72.1200 0.0000 TD (tions. Logistic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -387.7800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (regression results have been reported in various forms. Recommendations are made for)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (researchers t)Tj 60.0000 0.0000 TD (o formulate consi)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (stent policies and)Tj 83.2800 0.0000 TD ( practices for a)Tj 70.6800 0.0000 TD (pplying versatile)Tj 80.2800 0.0000 TD ( logistic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -378.0600 -14.4000 TD (regression tech)Tj 72.1200 0.0000 TD (niques and communic)Tj 105.2400 0.0000 TD (ating their result)Tj 78.6000 0.0000 TD (s.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -255.9600 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Perna, L. W. \(2001\). )Tj 111.6000 0.0000 TD (The Contribution of Historically Black Colleges and Universities to the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -111.6000 -14.4000 TD (Preparation of African Americans for Faculty Careers. )Tj 272.2800 0.0000 TD ( Research in Higher Education 42\(3\):)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -272.2800 -14.4000 TD (267-294.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (It has long been a)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (ccepted that Hist)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (orically Black Coll)Tj 91.3200 0.0000 TD (eges and Univers)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (ities \(hereafte)Tj 65.4000 0.0000 TD (r referred to)Tj ET endstream endobj 77 0 obj << /Type /Pages /Kids [ 69 0 R 67 0 R 64 0 R 62 0 R 60 0 R ] /Count 5 /Parent 2 0 R >> endobj 78 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 88 0 R /Contents 79 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 79 0 obj << /Length 7659 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (61)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (This study examines three questions concerning the links between religious involvement, social)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (capital, and academic achievement of public school students using data from the second and third)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (waves of NELS: \(1\) What are the relationships between adolescents )Tj 329.5200 0.0000 TD ( religious involvement and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -329.4600 -14.3400 TD (their access to social capital within families \(parental expectations and parent-child interaction\))Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (and communities \(intergenerational closure and peers )Tj 260.4000 0.0000 TD ( academic values\)? \(2\) Is adolescent)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -260.3400 -14.4000 TD (religious involvement associated with academic progress, including self-concept, attitudes)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (\(educational expectations\), effort \(time spent on homework and truancy\), opportunities and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (demands \(advanced mathematics course work\), and rewards \(high school graduation\)? A)Tj 428.8800 0.0000 TD (nd \(3\))Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -428.8800 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (to what extent are)Tj 85.4400 0.0000 TD ( the positive relat)Tj 82.9200 0.0000 TD (ionships between r)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (eligious involveme)Tj 91.6800 0.0000 TD (nt and academic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -349.9200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (progress due to enhanced access to social capital? The study finds that adolescents )Tj 402.1200 0.0000 TD ( religious)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -402.1200 -14.4000 TD (involvement at grade 10 is consistently and positively associated with various forms of social)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (capital, including parental expectations and parent-child interaction, intergenerational closure,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (and relations with academically oriented peers. Religious involvement during grade 10 may play)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (a role in the curr)' 79.0800 0.0000 TD (ent and future av)Tj 80.7000 0.0000 TD (ailability of twelf)Tj 83.2800 0.0000 TD (th-graders )Tj 52.4400 0.0000 TD ( community social ca)Tj 102.2400 0.0000 TD (pital; it has a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -397.7400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (moderate and positive association with locus of control; it is associated with teens )Tj 396.9600 0.0000 TD ( higher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -396.9000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (educational exp)Tj 75.4800 0.0000 TD (ectations, more ti)Tj 82.9200 0.0000 TD (me spent on homewor)Tj 106.2000 0.0000 TD (k, and lower leve)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (ls of truancy. Tho)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (se)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -435.2400 -14.4000 TD (estimated effec)Tj 72.7200 0.0000 TD (ts of religious invol)Tj 93.7200 0.0000 TD (vement on acade)Tj 80.4000 0.0000 TD (mic progress are)Tj 79.0800 0.0000 TD ( explained large)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD (ly by family)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -402.3000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (and community social capital. However, religious involvement remains modestly but)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (significantly linked with desirable outcomes even controlling on the effects of social capital. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Muller, P., Kinzie,)' 88.6800 0.0000 TD ( J., and Stage, F. K.)Tj 95.2800 0.0000 TD ( \(In press\). )Tj 61.9200 0.0000 TD (Science Achiev)Tj 72.0000 0.0000 TD (ement Growth Trajec)Tj 102.6000 0.0000 TD (tories:)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -420.4800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Understanding Factors Related to Gender and Racial-Ethnic Differences in Precollege Science)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Achievement. )Tj 70.8000 0.0000 TD ( American Educati)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (onal Research Jou)Tj 89.1600 0.0000 TD (rnal.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 23.0400 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -272.8800 -14.3400 TD (Using a sample drawn from the first three waves of the National Education Longitudinal Study)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (of 1988 and hierarchical linear modeling, the authors of this paper study racial-ethnic and gender)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (differences in)' 65.4000 0.0000 TD ( precollege stude)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (nt growth traject)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (ories for scienc)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD (e achievement. T)Tj 85.0800 0.0000 TD (he available)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -383.8200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (multi-wave data makes the examination of educational growth predictors possible. Precollege)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (education provides a onetime exposure to the variety of sciences. The precollege learning)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (experience thu)' 70.0800 0.0000 TD (s determines, to a)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD ( greater of less)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (er degree, who)Tj 70.6800 0.0000 TD ( will in time choose sc)Tj 107.6400 0.0000 TD (ience as a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -402.3000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (career. Faced with an obvious under-representation of females, minorities, and people of low)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (socioeconomic sta)' 88.2000 0.0000 TD (tus \(SES\), the autho)Tj 96.0000 0.0000 TD (rs of this paper ho)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (ped to comprehen)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (d what happens in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -356.4600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (precollege education that results in later attrition of non-white or Asian American males. The)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (results point to their often poor academic preparation prior to college. The quality of science)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (courses correlates positively with science achievement. Gender differences in scie)Tj 395.8800 0.0000 TD (nce)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -395.8800 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (achievement gro)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD (w as students adva)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (nce through high sc)Tj 94.2000 0.0000 TD (hool. In fact, by a)Tj 87.4800 0.0000 TD (ge 17, the differ)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD (ence is)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -427.0200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (at its largest. Asian American and white male students show higher science achievement scores)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (and disproportionately greater overall gains of knowledge in the field. Racial/ethnic differences)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (with regard to science achievement are evident much earlier than gender diff)Tj 367.2000 0.0000 TD (erences. The)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -367.2000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (differences a)Tj 61.3200 0.0000 TD (lso tend to be much gr)Tj 106.9200 0.0000 TD (eater. SES and ac)Tj 86.7600 0.0000 TD (hievement are lin)Tj 83.1600 0.0000 TD (ked; they vary dir)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD (ectly)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -423.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (with each other. People with higher SES generally gain more growth in science achievement. In)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (fact, lower SES students show smaller and smaller growth over time, resulting in a widening of)Tj ET endstream endobj 80 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 88 0 R /Contents 81 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 81 0 obj << /Length 7159 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (60)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -192.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Based on these re)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD (sults, the authors c)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (onclude that )Tj 67.2000 0.0000 TD (horizon-expand)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (ing )Tj 20.6400 0.0000 TD ( public schools,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -372.3600 -14.3400 TD (where student an)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (d parent network)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (s include access)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD ( to people outside th)Tj 97.3200 0.0000 TD (e community, promot)Tj 103.6800 0.0000 TD (e)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -439.6800 -14.4000 TD (more learning tha)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (n )Tj 14.2800 0.0000 TD (norm-enforcing)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 5.2800 0.0000 TD ( schools, where st)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (udent and parent)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD ( contacts are ma)Tj 77.4000 0.0000 TD (inly)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -421.5600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (centered around the school. It is also suggested that the source of the Catholic school effect may)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (lie in differences in course taking, combined with the norms of the church.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Morgan, S. L. \(2001\). )Tj 114.0000 0.0000 TD (Counterfactuals, Causal Effect Heterogeneity, and the Catholic School)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -113.9400 -14.4000 TD (Effect on Learning. )Tj 99.7200 0.0000 TD ( Sociology of Education 74: 341-374.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -63.6600 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Coleman and his colleagues first discovered that Catholic school students seem to learn)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (more than their pu)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (blic school counte)Tj 87.2400 0.0000 TD (rparts. In this ar)Tj 75.8400 0.0000 TD (ticle, the author)Tj 74.8800 0.0000 TD ( discusses difficu)Tj 82.5600 0.0000 TD (lties with)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -408.7200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (using standard regression techniques to estimate the size of the Catholic school effect. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (Propensity-score matching is offered as a complementary estimation strategy. 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An)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (important finding is that the students who realize the largest benefit are those least likely to be)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (attending a Catholic school. These students are disproportionately minorities from low-SES)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (families. The author warns against drawing too many policy implications from existing work on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (the Catholic schoo)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (l effect. Even u)Tj 76.0800 0.0000 TD (sing propensity-sc)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD (ore matching, it is n)Tj 95.6400 0.0000 TD (ot possible to accu)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (rately)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -437.5200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (estimate the benefit to public school students of attending Catholic schools. Nor can we tell how)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Catholic school students )' 121.3200 0.0000 TD ( learning would be affected by a massive influx of public school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -121.2600 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (students.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Morgan, S. \(2001\). )Tj 101.2800 0.0000 TD (Counterfactuals, Causal Effect Heterogeneity, and the Catholic School)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -101.2800 -14.4000 TD (Effect on Learning. )Tj 99.7200 0.0000 TD ( Sociology of Education 74: 341-374.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -99.6600 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Attempts to infer causal effects from conventional surveys are inherently limited by the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (observational nature of their data. Propensity matching methods offer a means of approximating)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (the causal ideal implicit in most social science writing and modeling. Using these methods and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (data from the National Longitudinal Study of 1988 \(NELS:88\), the author reexamines the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Catholic school ef)' 87.2400 0.0000 TD (fect noted by Cole)Tj 88.1400 0.0000 TD (man and Hoffer \()Tj 82.6800 0.0000 TD (1982\), Chubb and Moe)Tj 111.2400 0.0000 TD ( \(1990\), Bryk et. a)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD (l.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -457.2000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (\(1993\), and others by estimating the Catholic school differential for high school math and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (reading achiev)' 70.0800 0.0000 TD (ement. The result)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (s suggest that stude)Tj 93.0000 0.0000 TD (nts who are least l)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (ikely to be enrolle)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (d in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -423.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Catholic schools are actually the most likely to benefit from attending these schools, although the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (author does not provide a statistical means of selecting from several underlying interpretations of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (such effects. The limitations of propensity matching models and the underlying conterfactual)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (framework are also addressed, particularly with respect to sociological researc)Tj 374.8800 0.0000 TD (h and more general)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -374.8200 -14.4000 TD (paradigms on learning and education.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Muller, C., and Elliso)Tj 104.7600 0.0000 TD (n, C. G. \(2001\) )Tj 85.3200 0.0000 TD (Religious Involve)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (ment, Social Capital)Tj 98.4000 0.0000 TD (, and Adolescents )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -371.9400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Academic Progress: Evidence from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.")Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (Sociological Focus 34\(2\): 155-183.)Tj ET endstream endobj 82 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 99 0 R /Contents 83 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 83 0 obj << /Length 7474 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (59)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (correlated with)Tj 72.1200 0.0000 TD ( affect in that sub)Tj 83.1600 0.0000 TD (ject than with aff)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (ect in other subje)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (cts. However, stu)Tj 86.1600 0.0000 TD (dents )Tj 29.2800 0.0000 TD ( test)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -434.3400 -14.3400 TD (scores in differ)Tj 71.7600 0.0000 TD (ent subject area)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (s are more consis)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (tent from one subje)Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (ct to another than)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD ( affect is.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -405.3600 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Morgan. R. P., Kruytbosch, C., and Kannankutty, N. \(2001\). "Patenting and Invention Activity of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (U.S. Scientists and Engineers in the Academic Sector: Comparisons with Industry." Journal of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Technology Transfer 26: 173-183.)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The authors of this article look at data from workforce surveys distributed by the National)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Science Foundatio)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (n to chart the pate)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (nting and licensing)Tj 91.3200 0.0000 TD ( tendencies of sc)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD (ientists and engine)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (ers in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -434.7600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (academic institution versus industry. The dataset includes demographic information as well as)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (employment and education history. Of 204,700 scientists and engineers who filled out the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (survey, 8.0% listed themselves as inventors holding at least one patent within the previous five)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (years. The patent activity rates for the Education Sector and Industry Sector were 4.6% and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (10.0%, respectiv)Tj 80.1600 0.0000 TD (ely. Of those with p)Tj 97.9200 0.0000 TD (atent activity in th)Tj 87.0000 0.0000 TD (e Education Secto)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (r, 69.2% have doc)Tj 86.7000 0.0000 TD (torate)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -438.3600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (degrees. In the Industry Sector, on the other hand, 26.2% were working with only a master )Tj 441.1200 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -441.1200 -14.4000 TD (degree; another 44.6% reported having only earned a bachelor )Tj 302.0400 0.0000 TD (s degree. Other interesting)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -302.0400 -14.3400 TD (findings: though females account for 25% of the doctorates in education, they only comprised)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (about 11% of the patent activity share; the rate of patent activity for United States citizens was)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (slightly lower than)' 90.0000 0.0000 TD ( for non-citizen)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (s; and although pate)Tj 96.2400 0.0000 TD (nt activity normall)Tj 88.6800 0.0000 TD (y decreases wit)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD (h age, in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -421.8000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (the education sector there is no such decline. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Morgan, S. L. and Srensen, A. B. \(1999\). )Tj 211.5600 0.0000 TD (Parental Networks, Social Closure, and Mathematics)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -211.5600 -14.4000 TD (Learning: A Test of Coleman )Tj 144.0000 0.0000 TD (s Social Capital Explanation of School Effects. )Tj 231.8400 0.0000 TD ( American)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -375.8400 -14.4000 TD (Sociological Review 64:661-681.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (James Coleman and his colleagues first reported that Catholic school students learn more)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (than similar public high school students despite Catholic schools )Tj 314.6400 0.0000 TD ( low spending per pupil. They)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -314.5800 -14.3400 TD (believed the reason was an abundance of social capital in Catholic school communities in the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (form of church no)Tj 86.7600 0.0000 TD (rms, intergener)Tj 72.4800 0.0000 TD (ational social clo)Tj 81.2400 0.0000 TD (sure, or both. Sinc)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (e social closure)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD ( can exist in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -404.8800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (public school communities as well, the authors test its effect on learning in both sectors. They)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (utilize data from)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD ( the base year a)Tj 73.6800 0.0000 TD (nd first two follow-)Tj 93.6000 0.0000 TD (ups of NELS in order)Tj 103.1400 0.0000 TD ( to estimate random)Tj 94.9200 0.0000 TD (-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -444.6000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (effects of covariance models with both student-level and school-level characteristics and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (disturbance terms. Their models attempt to explain variance in math achievement test gains)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (between the tent)' 78.4800 0.0000 TD (h and twelfth gra)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (des.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -123.9600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The authors find that when relevant individual and school-level variables are controlled, a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (composite measure of social closure among students and their parents does not explain variation)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (in mathematics learning. Nor does social closure explain the positive effect that Catholic school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (attendance exerts upon learning. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Next, the authors)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD ( break down socia)Tj 86.7600 0.0000 TD (l closure into its two)Tj 98.0400 0.0000 TD ( components: studen)Tj 98.6400 0.0000 TD (ts )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -401.6400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (friendships with other students, and parents )Tj 212.4000 0.0000 TD ( relationships with their children )Tj 159.8400 0.0000 TD (s friends )Tj 44.8800 0.0000 TD ( parents. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -417.1200 -14.4000 TD (These two variables turn out to work in opposite directions. 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Ho)Tj 87.4800 0.0000 TD (wever, social c)Tj 71.4000 0.0000 TD (losure among pare)Tj 88.4400 0.0000 TD (nts only reduces le)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (arning in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -404.5800 -14.4000 TD (public schools; the)Tj 90.0000 0.0000 TD ( evidence sugges)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (ts it may promote math)Tj 111.3600 0.0000 TD ( achievement in Ca)Tj 92.1600 0.0000 TD (tholic schools.)Tj ET endstream endobj 84 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 99 0 R /Contents 85 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 85 0 obj << /Length 7091 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (58)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (toward mathematics and achievement in mathematics was slightly significant but not strong. 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The recommendation is made that more comprehensive,)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (state-of-the-art designs be used for constructing survey items for large-scale studies. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Marsh, H. \(1996\). )Tj 96.6000 0.0000 TD ( Positive and Negative Global Self-esteem: A Substantively Meaningful)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -96.5400 -14.4000 TD (Distinction or Artifactors? )Tj 134.8800 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70\(4\): 810-19.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -134.8200 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Results of confirmatory factor analysis on the seven item global measure of self esteem from the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (base year and first follow-up of NELS show the existence of a single latent construct instead of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (two separate items. Negatively worded items are problematic especially for students with reading)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (difficulties. If surveys use negatively worded items, it is suggested that investigators employ)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (confirmatory factor analysis to evaluate the psychometric properties of responses to the rating)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (scales. Findings indicate that the positively worded items should be given more weight in the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (computation of a global self-esteem score. Using positive and negative items in follow-up)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (administrations can inflate the correlations between measures of the same construct over time.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Marsh, H. W., and Yeung, A. S. \(1996\). )Tj 197.8800 0.0000 TD (The Distinctiveness of Affect in Specific School)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -197.8800 -14.4000 TD (Subjects: An Application of Confirmatory Factor Analysis with the National Educational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Longitudinal Study of 1)' 113.1600 0.0000 TD (988. )Tj 27.7200 0.0000 TD ( American Educati)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (onal Research Jou)Tj 89.1600 0.0000 TD (rnal )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 23.0400 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (33\(3\): 665-689.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -342.9000 -14.3400 TD (The authors ask whether three dimensions of academic affect \(anxiety, looking forward to the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (class, and future)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD ( relevance\) ar)Tj 64.9200 0.0000 TD (e subject-speci)Tj 70.8000 0.0000 TD (fic or similar for)Tj 78.8400 0.0000 TD ( all subjects. \(Subj)Tj 91.6800 0.0000 TD (ect-specific)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -384.3000 -14.3400 TD (means that the lev)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (el of affect va)Tj 66.0000 0.0000 TD (ries between mat)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (h and English, for e)Tj 94.2000 0.0000 TD (xample.\) To inves)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (tigate this)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -418.0200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (question, they utilize data from the NELS:88 eighth grade sample. They employ sophisticated)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (methods, namely confirmatory factor analysis \(CFA\) models of multitrait-multimethod)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (\(MTMM\) data. The findings suggest that affect is strongly subject-specific. Indeed, affect varies)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (across subjects quite a bit more than different dimensions of affect vary from one another. There)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (is a matching patte)' 90.2400 0.0000 TD (rn for academic)Tj 75.0000 0.0000 TD ( achievement; te)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (st scores in a give)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (n subject are mor)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (e highly)Tj ET endstream endobj 86 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 99 0 R /Contents 87 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 87 0 obj << /Length 7459 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (57)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (modeling approaches which fail to take into account the reciprocal relationship between attitudes)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (and achievement overstate the correlation between student-perceived importance of)Tj 400.2000 0.0000 TD ( mathematics)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -400.1400 -14.4000 TD (and student enjoyment of mathematics and math achievement. 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The depende)Tj 434.5200 0.0000 TD (nt)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -434.5200 -14.4000 TD (variable for this meta-analysis was effect size, estimated with Pearson product-moment r;)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (independent variables included sample size; sample selection; causal direction \(specified or not\);)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (gender; grade; and ethnicity.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD (Findings include the following: The relationship between ATM and AIM is similar for)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (males and females; the ATM-AIM relationship declines through the grades; there appeared to be)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (no relationship between ATM and AIM for white students, but the relationship was positive for)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (both Asians and bla)Tj 94.9200 0.0000 TD (cks; research d)Tj 74.0400 0.0000 TD (esigns using rando)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (m samples were mor)Tj 99.4800 0.0000 TD (e powerful in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -357.7200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (detecting the relationship between ATM and AIM; there was no reliable evidence that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (interactions amon)' 85.5600 0.0000 TD (g gender, grade)Tj 74.0400 0.0000 TD (, and ethnicity af)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (fected the magni)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (tude of the relat)Tj 75.4800 0.0000 TD (ionship)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -395.3400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (between ATM and AIM. The study )Tj 176.6400 0.0000 TD (s overall finding was that the relationship between attitudes)Tj ET endstream endobj 88 0 obj << /Type /Pages /Kids [ 80 0 R 78 0 R 75 0 R 73 0 R 71 0 R ] /Count 5 /Parent 2 0 R >> endobj 89 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 99 0 R /Contents 90 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 90 0 obj << /Length 7363 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (56)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Lee, V. E. and Smith, J. B. \(1997\). )Tj 173.5200 0.0000 TD (High School Size: Which Works Best and for Whom? )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -173.5200 -14.3400 TD (Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 19:205-227.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Past research on school size has shown that students learn more in smaller high schools and that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (learning is also more equitable in smaller school settings. Suggesting that there are diminishing)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (returns to smallne)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (ss, the authors att)Tj 83.2800 0.0000 TD (empt to determine o)Tj 96.2400 0.0000 TD (ptimal high school siz)Tj 105.7200 0.0000 TD (e. They use data)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -371.1600 -14.4000 TD (from the first thre)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD (e waves of NELS:8)Tj 93.4800 0.0000 TD (8, which allows the)Tj 93.2400 0.0000 TD (m to follow eighth gr)Tj 102.0000 0.0000 TD (ade students)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -373.5600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (through to twelfth grade. Utilizing hierarchical linear modeling, they test for the effects of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (differing school sizes on gains in test scores in two subjects: reading and math. Overall, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (authors find that the best high school size is 600-900 students. Schools of this size produce the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (highest overall achievement gains. The effects of optimal size are especially dramatic for)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (schools in which the student body has a low average SES, and in schools whose students are)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (predominantly minorities. On the other hand, equity \(defined as )Tj 316.9200 0.0000 TD (the relationship between)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -316.9200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (learning and stude)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD (nt socioeconomic s)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (tatus )Tj 27.9600 0.0000 TD (\) has an inverse r)Tj 81.7200 0.0000 TD (elationship to scho)Tj 90.0000 0.0000 TD (ol size; the most)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -379.3800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (equitable schools are the smallest. In closing, the authors caution that size probably does not)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (have a direct effect on student outcomes. It is more likely that size influences achievement)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (through its effects on the curriculum, school social relations, and extracurricular participation.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -43.2000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Lindauer, I. E. and Queitzsch, M. L. \(1996\). )Tj 220.9200 0.0000 TD (A Profile of Public School Biology Teachers in the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -220.9200 -14.4000 TD (USA. )Tj 31.6800 0.0000 TD ( The American Biology Teacher 58\(1\): 20-33.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -31.6800 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (This article provides a descriptive profile of biology teachers in grades 7-12. A primary goal of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (the study is assess how well-prepared these teachers are in the physical and life sciences. The)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (primary source of data for the study is the U.S. Department of Education )' 352.6800 0.0000 TD (s Schools and Staffing)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -352.6800 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Survey. The autho)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (rs provide descr)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD (iptive statistics on a)Tj 95.0400 0.0000 TD (ge, race, and ge)Tj 74.6400 0.0000 TD (nder, percenta)Tj 67.6800 0.0000 TD (ge of those)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -405.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (holding bachelor )Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD (s and master )Tj 63.8400 0.0000 TD (s degrees, and number of undergraduate and graduate courses)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -148.6800 -14.3400 TD (taken in biology and other science-related fields. Among the study )Tj 325.8000 0.0000 TD (s findings: 63% of high)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -325.7400 -14.4000 TD (school biology teachers are 41 years of age or older; a high percentage of teac)Tj 372.8400 0.0000 TD (hers of physics and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -372.7800 -14.4000 TD (chemistry are also 41 years of age or older, suggesting that there is an aging population of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (science teachers in the U.S. Over 90% of biology teachers in the U.S. are white. 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A high proportion of junior)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -57.9600 -14.4000 TD (high and high school biology teachers have obtained bachelor )Tj 300.1200 0.0000 TD (s degrees in biology or other)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -300.1200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (science-rela)Tj 57.0000 0.0000 TD (ted fields. Over 5)Tj 83.1600 0.0000 TD (0 percent of junio)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD (r high and high scho)Tj 97.9200 0.0000 TD (ol biology teacher)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (s also hold)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -409.4400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (master )Tj 35.8800 0.0000 TD (s degrees, but the fields in which they completed their degrees vary widely.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -35.8800 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Ma, X. \(1997\). )Tj 82.9200 0.0000 TD (Reciprocal Relationships between Attitude toward Mathematics and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -82.8600 -14.3400 TD (Achievement in Mathematics. )Tj 148.0800 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Educational Research 90\(4\).)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -148.0800 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The relationship between attitudes toward mathematics \(ATM\) and achievement in mathematics)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (\(AIM\) has long been assumed, but infrequently addressed empirically by taking into account)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (reciprocal causal relationships between attitudes and outcomes. Using structural equation)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (methods and data from a 1988-89 study of 1,200 high school seniors in the Dominican Republic,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (the relationships between ATM and AIM are examined to determine the salience of )' 408.7200 0.0000 TD (loop)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -408.7200 -14.3400 TD (enhancement effects )Tj 103.2000 0.0000 TD ( between student attitudes and performance. The results suggest that)Tj ET endstream endobj 91 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 99 0 R /Contents 92 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 92 0 obj << /Length 7444 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (55)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (tracking )Tj 51.2400 0.0000 TD (it would seem that similar consequences would result from other student groupings. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -51.1800 -14.3400 TD (For example, students on the same varsity sports team or in the same debate club are just as)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (likely to form frie)Tj 85.5600 0.0000 TD (ndships as those who)Tj 101.6400 0.0000 TD ( spend the year in)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD ( the same honors ca)Tj 94.4400 0.0000 TD (lculus class. This)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -366.1200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (finding may prove to be useful to educational policymakers and school administrators by)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (providing further insight into the effects of student grouping.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Lee, J. \(1998\). )Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (State Policy Correlates of the Achievement Gap Among Racial and Social)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -79.1400 -14.4000 TD (Groups. )Tj 45.7200 0.0000 TD ( Studies in Educational Evaluation 24\(2\): 137-152.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -45.6600 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (The author of this a)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD (rticle examines t)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (he learning gap,)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD ( as it exists betwee)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (n racial and soci)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD (al groups,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -417.7800 -14.4000 TD (and the effects)Tj 69.7200 0.0000 TD ( of policies aimed a)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD (t reducing it. Using)Tj 92.6400 0.0000 TD ( data from the 1992)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD ( NAEP Trial State)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -350.0400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Assessment, the author conducts state-level analyses. Specifically, four dimensions of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (learning gap are referenced: the within-school racial gap, the within-school social gap, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (between-school racial gap, and the between-school social gap. The first two focus upon)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (differences in mathematics achievement between white and minority students and students of)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (different socio)' 69.4800 0.0000 TD (economic backgr)Tj 82.0800 0.0000 TD (ound in the same sch)Tj 100.5600 0.0000 TD (ool. The later two)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD ( dimensions concen)Tj 94.5600 0.0000 TD (trate)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -434.8200 -14.3400 TD (upon the same topic)Tj 96.2400 0.0000 TD (s, but the comparis)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (on is made betwee)Tj 88.8000 0.0000 TD (n schools. Results of)Tj 102.3600 0.0000 TD ( the analysis)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -378.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (indicate that states have difficulty both improving student achievement and narrowing the racial)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (gap when students are in higher grade levels. At the same time, there is little difference between)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (high and low perfo)Tj 90.8400 0.0000 TD (rming states with re)Tj 94.9200 0.0000 TD (gard to the social)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD ( achievement gap)Tj 83.7600 0.0000 TD (, indicating that it i)Tj 91.0800 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -442.7400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (difficult for all states to maintain a high level of achievement across social groups. In fact, even)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (states that were)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD ( active in raising s)Tj 87.2400 0.0000 TD (tandards for stud)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (ents and teache)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD (rs in the 1980s have)Tj 95.8800 0.0000 TD ( difficulty)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -410.4600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (narrowing the differences as students age.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Lee, V. E. and Loeb, S. \(1995\). )Tj 157.5600 0.0000 TD (Where Do Head Start Attendees End Up? One Reason Why)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -157.5000 -14.4000 TD (Preschool Effects Fade Out. )Tj 142.5600 0.0000 TD ( Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 17:62-82.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -142.5600 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Researchers have found that while Head Start has positive short-term effects on children )Tj 427.6800 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -427.6800 -14.4000 TD (achievement, the long-term benefit is minimal. Why is this the case? The authors believe an)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (important part of t)' 87.6000 0.0000 TD (he answer is the q)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (uality of the schoo)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (ls Head Start grad)Tj 86.1600 0.0000 TD (uates subsequent)Tj 80.8800 0.0000 TD (ly)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -429.3600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (attend. Taking data from eighth graders who were part of NELS:88, the authors use analysis of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (covariance \(A)Tj 67.3200 0.0000 TD (NCOVA\) to compar)Tj 97.8000 0.0000 TD (e the quality of the)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD ( middle-grade sc)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (hools 8)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 35.0400 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.2600 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( graders who)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -375.4800 -14.4000 TD (attended Head Start as preschoolers and others experience. After taking into account the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (background characteristics that would have qualified students for Head Start, they find that the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (graduates of Head Start are significantly more likely than statistically equivalent graduates of)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (other preschool programs and non-pre-school attendees to attend middle-grade schools that rank)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (poorly along three out of five dimensions of school quality \(school average SES, school average)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (achievement, an)Tj 77.7600 0.0000 TD (d school safety\).)Tj 78.8400 0.0000 TD ( In terms of acad)Tj 83.4000 0.0000 TD (emic climate, He)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (ad Start attendee)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (s )Tj 8.6400 0.0000 TD ( middle)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -409.9200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (schools are worse than those of the )Tj 175.9200 0.0000 TD (other pre-school )Tj 83.4000 0.0000 TD ( group, while in terms of student-teacher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -259.3200 -14.4000 TD (relations, their schools are worse than those of the )Tj 248.1600 0.0000 TD (no pre-school )Tj 70.8000 0.0000 TD ( group. The authors conclude)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -318.9600 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (that the lack of c)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (ompensatory educ)Tj 87.4800 0.0000 TD (ation beyond pres)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (chool is too much for)Tj 102.6000 0.0000 TD ( Head Start alone)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD ( to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -437.8800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (overcome, and that the program should not be held accountable for long-term effects for that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (reason.)Tj ET endstream endobj 93 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 110 0 R /Contents 94 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 94 0 obj << /Length 7414 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (54)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (not having one, doe)Tj 94.5600 0.0000 TD (s not change the pr)Tj 90.4800 0.0000 TD (edicted value of)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD ( science achiev)Tj 72.3600 0.0000 TD (ement or the dete)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (rminants)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.5800 -14.3400 TD (within the model. Ho)Tj 105.0000 0.0000 TD (wever, when gro)Tj 80.0400 0.0000 TD (uping, teacher d)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (egree, and time o)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (n science are a)Tj 69.9600 0.0000 TD (ll)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -414.2400 -14.4000 TD (introduced into the)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD ( model there are)Tj 77.4000 0.0000 TD ( different effe)Tj 65.6400 0.0000 TD (cts. Science ac)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (hievement seems to)Tj 94.5600 0.0000 TD ( increase)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -398.2800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (slightly when there is not ability grouping, teachers have bachelor )Tj 320.1600 0.0000 TD (s degrees in science, and there)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -320.1600 -14.4000 TD (is an increase in the total time spent on science.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Kaplan, D. and George, R. \(1998\). )Tj 176.8800 0.0000 TD (Evaluating Latent Variable Growth Models Through Ex)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -176.8800 -14.4000 TD (post Stimulation. )Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics 23\(3\): 216-235.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -88.1400 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Using ex post \(histor)Tj 100.3200 0.0000 TD (ical\) simulation sta)Tj 91.3200 0.0000 TD (tistics as a means o)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (f evaluating late)Tj 77.1600 0.0000 TD (nt variable grow)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -439.2000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (models, the authors examine growth in science achievement. Such methods of evaluating)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (temporal models we)' 97.2000 0.0000 TD (re developed in a)Tj 82.0800 0.0000 TD (pplied economic f)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (orecasting and h)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (ave been used fo)Tj 80.0400 0.0000 TD (r some)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -424.3200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (time. In this paper, inequality coefficient, bias proportion, variance proportion, and covariance)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (proportion are used to assess the simulation adequacy of growth models. Parent push and teacher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (push are found to predict growth using both ex post simulations and standard statistics. For)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (forecasting fut)' 69.4800 0.0000 TD (ure values, in this)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD ( case science a)Tj 69.9600 0.0000 TD (chievement, ex p)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (ost simulations are)Tj 90.0000 0.0000 TD ( shown to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -395.4600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (provide important information that improves the quality of the model. Simulation models are not)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (intended to repla)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (ce existing measu)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (res of model fit, bu)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD (t it is suggested that)Tj 95.4000 0.0000 TD ( they be used in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -352.6800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (conjunction with other standard methods. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Kifer, E. \(1997\). )Tj 88.6800 0.0000 TD (Why I Like Test Scores and What They Tell Me About Curriculum. )Tj 325.8000 0.0000 TD ( Journal of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -414.4800 -14.3400 TD (Curriculum Studies 29\(6\): 627-635.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (This is an Op-Ed piece that suggests that test scores can be used to make inferences about the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (efficacy of the curriculum. In the past, testing emphasized coherence among goals, curric)' 427.2000 0.0000 TD (ular)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -427.2000 -14.3400 TD (experiences, and testing outcomes. A premium was placed on testing what was taught. Using)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (SIMS and NAEP data, this article presents exploratory data analysis and visual displays that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (provide some evidence regarding the content of the elementary school curriculum and how it has)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (changed over a ten year period. Results suggest that what is learned by students in international)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (studies is more likely to be newly introduced content \(algebra and geometry\) where a solution)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (requires little more than rote calculation. When comparing scores across countries it appears that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (the scores are more a curriculum coverage comparison than a knowledge one. A)Tj 386.8800 0.0000 TD (nd finally,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -386.8800 -14.4000 TD (changes in NAEP scores over time seem to be related to changes in the curriculum, with 8)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 432.2400 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( grade)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -437.8800 -14.4000 TD (mathematics scores being more closely related to each other across states than with 4)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 407.5200 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( grade)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -413.1600 -14.4000 TD (scores within states. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Kubitschek, W. N. and Hallinan, M. T. \(1998\). )Tj 232.3200 0.0000 TD (Tracking and Students )Tj 111.9600 0.0000 TD ( Friendships. )Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD ( Social)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -414.3600 -14.4000 TD (Psychology Quarterly 61\(1\):1-15.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (It would seem that aside from academic achievement, there are other effe)Tj 350.8800 0.0000 TD (cts that school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -350.8800 -14.4000 TD (administrators might take into account when considering the widespread policy of )Tj 401.7600 0.0000 TD (tracking. )Tj 47.5200 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -449.2800 -14.4000 TD (Using data from High School and Beyond, the authors find that tracking has an independent)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (effect on friendship choices. When previous association, similarities, and relationships are)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (controlled for, tracking still has the effect of encouraging friendships among like-tracked)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (students. Propinquit)' 99.1200 0.0000 TD (y, similarity, and st)Tj 92.4000 0.0000 TD (atus, which are a)Tj 80.4000 0.0000 TD (ssociated with tra)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (cking placement,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -355.8000 -14.3400 TD (contribute to the c)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (reation of frien)Tj 71.7600 0.0000 TD (dships. The author)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (s note that these r)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (esults are not uniq)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD (ue to)Tj ET endstream endobj 95 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 110 0 R /Contents 96 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 96 0 obj << /Length 6535 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (53)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (ethnic group and b)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (ackground char)Tj 74.0400 0.0000 TD (acteristics \(inc)Tj 69.4800 0.0000 TD (ome, parental inc)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (ome education, a)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (nd academic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -397.2600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (ability\) have on the number of applications submitted and attendance at a first choice school. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (The authors conclude that it is necessary to develop more precise models of the early phases of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (the college application process in order to understand the vast differences in student preparation)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (for college among racial groups. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Ingersoll, R. M. \(1996\). )Tj 126.2400 0.0000 TD (Teachers )Tj 47.8800 0.0000 TD ( Decision-Making Power and School Conflict. )Tj 228.6000 0.0000 TD ( Sociology of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -402.7200 -14.4000 TD (Education 69: 159-176.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg /F6 12.0000 Tf (A primary focus of education research has been the distribution and effects of the power)' 422.8800 0.0000 TD ( structure)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -422.8800 -14.4000 TD (in school systems. Of increasing interest is the question of who should have the power to control)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (school decisions. The basic argument is over the benefits and drawbacks to centralization and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (decentralization of power. The author poses a slight variation upon this question: Does the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (amount of decision-making power that a teacher wields determine how well a school functions? )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (In other words, within a given school environment, does the amount or type of power that)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (teachers have over core educational activities at their school, affect the over)' 362.8800 0.0000 TD (all well being of that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -362.8800 -14.3400 TD (school? The analysis focuses upon one aspect of school performance, in particular )Tj 408.7200 0.0000 TD (the degree)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -408.7200 -14.4000 TD (of conflict among teachers, students, and administrators. Using data from the Schools and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Staffing Survey \(SASS\), conducted by the National Center for Educational Statistics \(NCES\),)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (Ingersoll demonstrates that the amount of power held by teachers does, in fact, contribute to how)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (well a school functions, depending upon the areas over which teacher have influence or)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (autonomy. Specifically, the findings suggests that increased teacher autonomy and influence)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (over areas related to sorting and socializing students have positive effects on school functioning.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Kaplan, D. and Elliott, P. R. \(1997\). )Tj 187.4400 0.0000 TD (A Didactic Example of Multilevel Structural Equation)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -187.4400 -14.4000 TD (Modeling Applicable to the Study of Organizations. Structural Equation Modeling: A)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (Multidisciplinary Journal 4: 1-24.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Results provide a didactic presentation and application of new developments in structural)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (equation modeling \(SEM\) that allow for modeling of multilevel data. The method described here)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (is a multilevel path)Tj 91.6800 0.0000 TD ( analysis model whe)Tj 97.5600 0.0000 TD (rein within-group)Tj 84.2400 0.0000 TD ( level paramete)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD (rs are modeled a)Tj 78.7200 0.0000 TD (s a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -425.2800 -14.4000 TD (function of betwe)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (en-group varia)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (bles following thei)Tj 90.0000 0.0000 TD (r own path model. Stu)Tj 106.3200 0.0000 TD (dents within schools)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -350.8800 -14.4000 TD (that exhibit higher)Tj 87.9600 0.0000 TD ( levels of acade)Tj 74.0400 0.0000 TD (mic press have, on)Tj 89.1600 0.0000 TD ( average, highe)Tj 72.7200 0.0000 TD (r science achie)Tj 70.3200 0.0000 TD (vement scores.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -394.2000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (This type of analysis is particularly useful for gauging the extent to which the properties of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (measurement instruments/construct validity show substantial between-group variation. A)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (limitation of multilevel SEM involves the interpretation of cross-level effects. That is, since the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (intercepts and not usual mean values are being analyzed, how the independent variables are)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (centered has profound implications for the interpretation of the results. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Kaplan, D. and Elliott, P. \(In press\). )Tj 188.4000 0.0000 TD (Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling for)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -188.3400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Organizational Studie)Tj 106.4400 0.0000 TD (s: The Case of Educa)Tj 102.6000 0.0000 TD (tion. )Tj 28.4400 0.0000 TD ( Advances in Rese)Tj 86.7000 0.0000 TD (arch Methods and An)Tj 103.5600 0.0000 TD (alysis)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -427.8000 -14.3400 TD (for Organizational Stu)Tj 108.8400 0.0000 TD (dies.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -108.8400 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Multilevel structural equation modeling was used with NELS science data to demonstrate the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (potential of this ap)' 89.6400 0.0000 TD (proach. Slightly hig)Tj 98.0400 0.0000 TD (her levels of ac)Tj 72.7200 0.0000 TD (ademic press ar)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (e predicted for)Tj 69.7200 0.0000 TD ( schools)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -404.4600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (where ability grouping is used. Whether the teacher has a bachelor )Tj 325.8000 0.0000 TD (s degree in science, versus)Tj ET endstream endobj 97 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 110 0 R /Contents 98 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 98 0 obj << /Length 7805 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (52)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (the effects of desegregated schooling on postsecondary educational attainment \(vocational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (training, community college, and 4-year college\) will not be uniform but will vary on the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (individual level de)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (pending on racia)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (l or ethnic identiti)Tj 85.6800 0.0000 TD (es, socioeconomic)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD ( status, or placem)Tj 83.8200 0.0000 TD (ent in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.4800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (particular curriculum programs. The authors further hypothesize that postsecondary educational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (attainment will vary on the school level with the average socioeconomic background, racial)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (composition of the school, and academic program provision. Employing data from High School)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (and Beyond, the authors found that, contrary to expectation, high school desegregation does not)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (significantly affect postsecondary attendance rates. Further, racial desegrega)Tj 368.8800 0.0000 TD (tion in high school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -368.8800 -14.4000 TD (did not raise a student )Tj 109.2000 0.0000 TD (s chance of attending postsecondary school, and in fact, mildly lowered)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -109.1400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (postsecondary min)Tj 90.2400 0.0000 TD (ority attendance)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (. On an individual le)Tj 101.2800 0.0000 TD (vel, however, su)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (stained enrollmen)Tj 85.5600 0.0000 TD (t in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -432.3600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (desegregated schools prior to high school did raise a minority student )Tj 336.9600 0.0000 TD (s chances of attending)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -336.9600 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (postsecondary sc)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (hool. In addition, mi)Tj 98.4000 0.0000 TD (nority students pla)Tj 88.6800 0.0000 TD (ced in inferior c)Tj 76.0800 0.0000 TD (urricular progr)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (ams in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -414.7200 -14.4000 TD (desegregated s)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (chools were less)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD ( likely to attend pos)Tj 94.6800 0.0000 TD (tsecondary scho)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (ol than minority stude)Tj 105.7200 0.0000 TD (nts)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -425.7600 -14.4000 TD (placed in similar p)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (rograms in segre)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (gated minority sch)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (ools.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -258.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Huang, G. G., Weng, S. and Cohen, M. P. \(1997\). )Tj 251.4000 0.0000 TD (Outmigration Among Rural High School)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -251.3400 -14.4000 TD (Graduates: The Effect of Academic and Vocational Programs. )Tj 306.4800 0.0000 TD ( Education Evaluation and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -306.4800 -14.4000 TD (Policy Analysis 19\(4\): 360-72.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The problems of rural communities in America have often been blamed on the out-migration of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (its youth, and thus on the type of schooling these children are given. Emphasis on either)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (vocational/technical or liberal/academic programs has been vilified as leading rural high school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (students to urban centers and away from their towns. Many have claimed that emphasis on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (vocational programs in rural public schools gives high school students the labor skills necessary)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (for successful migration to large cities. They claim that liberal arts/academic programs teach)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (students the importa)Tj 97.3200 0.0000 TD (nce of contributi)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (ng to the community, t)Tj 109.0800 0.0000 TD (hus encouraging t)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (hem to remain)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -370.7400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (committed to the locales in which they were raised. Both of these types of school programs have)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (also, in turn, been)Tj 85.5600 0.0000 TD ( held up as the soluti)Tj 99.0000 0.0000 TD (on to the rural bra)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (in drain, through te)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (aching skills)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -362.2800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (necessary to aid in the betterment of the community. In this study, Huang et al. move beyond)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (previous resear)Tj 72.7200 0.0000 TD (ch on this topic by dif)Tj 105.0000 0.0000 TD (ferentiating be)Tj 69.4800 0.0000 TD (tween the effe)Tj 67.6800 0.0000 TD (cts of overall sc)Tj 75.4800 0.0000 TD (hool programs)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -390.3600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (and the coursework completed by individual students. Using data from High School and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Beyond, they look a)' 96.6000 0.0000 TD (t the ways in which t)Tj 99.6000 0.0000 TD (he types of progr)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (ams rural high sch)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (ool students)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -365.8200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (participate in predict post-high school mobility patterns, controlling for student background)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (\(parents )' 42.4800 0.0000 TD ( education, ethnic)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD ( background, etc)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD (.\) as well as commu)Tj 95.5200 0.0000 TD (nity context.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -302.2200 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Hurtado, S., Inke)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (las, K. K., Briggs, C., a)Tj 112.2000 0.0000 TD (nd Rhee, B. S. \(199)Tj 98.1600 0.0000 TD (7\). )Tj 25.6800 0.0000 TD (Differences in Coll)Tj 91.3200 0.0000 TD (ege Access)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -409.5000 -14.4000 TD (and Choice Among Ra)Tj 108.2400 0.0000 TD (cial/Ethnic Groups)Tj 91.6800 0.0000 TD (: Identifying Conti)Tj 88.6800 0.0000 TD (nuing Barriers. )Tj 80.7000 0.0000 TD ( Research in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -369.3600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Higher Education 38\(1\): 43-75.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Employing a theoretical model articulated by Hossler and Gallager \(1987\), the authors draw on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (data from NELS an)' 93.4800 0.0000 TD (d the Beginning Postse)Tj 110.4000 0.0000 TD (condary Student Lo)Tj 94.5600 0.0000 TD (ngitudinal Study \(199)Tj 104.7600 0.0000 TD (0/92\) to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -403.2000 -14.3400 TD (evaluate colleg)Tj 72.1200 0.0000 TD (e application beh)Tj 81.8400 0.0000 TD (aviors across ra)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (cial and ethnic gr)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (oups as indicators)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD ( of students )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -397.0800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (access, choice of college, and educational opportunity. They found significant differences)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (among racial groups in preparation for college, college application behavior, and the chance)' 440.8800 0.0000 TD (s of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -440.8800 -14.3400 TD (attending a first choice school. Numerous analyses are presented on the varied effec)Tj 404.8800 0.0000 TD (ts racial and)Tj ET endstream endobj 99 0 obj << /Type /Pages /Kids [ 91 0 R 89 0 R 86 0 R 84 0 R 82 0 R ] /Count 5 /Parent 2 0 R >> endobj 100 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 110 0 R /Contents 101 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 101 0 obj << /Length 7214 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (51)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (choice tests administered to 12)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 147.8400 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( graders as part of the High School Effectiveness Study. The)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -153.4200 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (questions that make)Tj 95.2800 0.0000 TD ( up the exams are b)Tj 92.7600 0.0000 TD (roken down into type)Tj 102.2400 0.0000 TD ( and studied in rela)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (tion to students )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -381.4200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (characteristics and experiences. Student characteristics include socioeconomic backgr)Tj 416.8800 0.0000 TD (ound as)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.8200 -14.3400 TD (well as gender and ethnicity. Students )Tj 188.7600 0.0000 TD ( experiences include exposure to various teaching)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -188.7000 -14.4000 TD (practices, hours of television watched, and course-taking patterns, among other things. For)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (questions that deal with items learned explicitly within the classroom, there were few gender)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (differences. The author finds that the major factor in the size and source of the gender)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (differences lies in the test construction, in the content and format, along with the type of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (reasoning and sources of knowledge involved in student responses. The author concludes that)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (future test construction would benefit from the exclusion of questions that rely heavily on)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (knowledge gaine)' 81.4800 0.0000 TD (d outside of the cla)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (ssroom and that show)Tj 104.2800 0.0000 TD ( large-group dif)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (ferences. Tes)Tj 66.0000 0.0000 TD (t)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -418.0200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (developers and users need to engage in careful validity investigations so they understand what)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (tests actually mea)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (sure, and specif)Tj 74.7600 0.0000 TD (ic item types that ma)Tj 99.9600 0.0000 TD (ke up a test.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -259.9200 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Hamilton, L. S. \(1999\). )Tj 123.7200 0.0000 TD (Detecting Gender-based Differential Item Functioning on a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -123.7200 -14.3400 TD (Constructed-response Science Test. )Tj 177.4800 0.0000 TD ( Applied Measurement in Education 12: 211-235.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -141.4800 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Using data from a science test administered to 12)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 236.2800 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( graders as part of the High School)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -277.9200 -14.4000 TD (Effectiveness Study, the author finds that one item in particular displayed a large male advantage)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (and contributed to the gender differences on the total scores. The author also examined)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (differential ite)Tj 68.1600 0.0000 TD (m functioning for th)Tj 96.9600 0.0000 TD (e constructed-r)Tj 71.4000 0.0000 TD (esponse items, fin)Tj 86.2800 0.0000 TD (ding that male and f)Tj 95.8800 0.0000 TD (emale)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -418.6200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (students who were matched on several multiple choice items displayed unequal probabilities of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (success on a constructed-response item. Efforts to explain differences in differential item)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (functioning were)' 81.4800 0.0000 TD ( obtained using cumu)Tj 102.9600 0.0000 TD (lative logit analys)Tj 85.3200 0.0000 TD (is and analyses of)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD ( categorical sub)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (scores,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -429.7200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (suggesting that efforts to explain differential item functioning should not be determined solely on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (inspection of item content. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD (Results from constructed-response items were similar to those obtained from multiple-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (choice tests. However, gender differences were largest on items that involved visualization and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (knowledge obtained outside of the classroom. Combining interview and test results, it appears)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (that male and female differences in item scores are directly attributable to knowledge learne)Tj 440.5200 0.0000 TD (d)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -440.4600 -14.4000 TD (outside of school by males rather than gender differences in visual or spatial reasoning.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Constructed-res)' 75.8400 0.0000 TD (ponse items do not ne)Tj 104.6400 0.0000 TD (cessarily reduc)Tj 71.4000 0.0000 TD (e the male advant)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD (age in science a)Tj 75.3600 0.0000 TD (nd may in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -411.3000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (fact increase it. The magnitude of gender difference is also affected by the)Tj 355.2000 0.0000 TD ( content and reasoning)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -355.1400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (requirement of th)Tj 83.1600 0.0000 TD (e test items and is su)Tj 99.0000 0.0000 TD (bject to change d)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (epending on the ite)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD (ms in the test.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -355.1400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Conclusions concerning gender differences on tests need to be informed by careful study of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (achievement measure and the items it comprises. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Huang, G. G. and Weng, S. S. \(1998\). )Tj 190.8000 0.0000 TD (Minority Post-secondary Education Attendance, High)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -190.8000 -14.4000 TD (School Desegregation, and Student Characteristics. )Tj 255.9600 0.0000 TD ( Race, Ethnicity, and Education 1\(2\): 241-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -255.9600 -14.4000 TD (265.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Previous research on racial educational inequality has focused on the question of whether )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (school desegregation benefits minority students without considering students )Tj 373.4400 0.0000 TD ( particular)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -373.4400 -14.4000 TD (backgrounds. In this study the authors investigate the combined effects of particular student)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (characteristics and school integration on postsecondary outcomes. The authors hypothesize that)Tj ET endstream endobj 102 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 110 0 R /Contents 103 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 103 0 obj << /Length 7850 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (50)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (because it is seen as pigeonholing students into set levels of ability without ever providing them)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (with the opportunity to move up \(down is less of an issue here\). In the current study, the author)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (uses data from a l)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (ongitudinal survey)Tj 89.6400 0.0000 TD ( of tracking in midd)Tj 95.2800 0.0000 TD (le schools, begun i)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (n 1986, to test this)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -358.6800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (commonly held belief. Questions addressed by the study include: \(1\) When do track changes)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (take place, if they do at all? \( 2\) Who changes tracks, and in what direction? And \(3\) does)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (tracking lead to t)' 80.8800 0.0000 TD (rack homogeneity)Tj 86.1600 0.0000 TD (, as one would assu)Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (me it is intended to do)Tj 107.0400 0.0000 TD (? In answering th)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (ese)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -452.7600 -14.3400 TD (questions, the auth)Tj 89.6400 0.0000 TD (or also attempts to d)Tj 97.3200 0.0000 TD (escribe a gene)Tj 67.6800 0.0000 TD (ral conceptual m)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (odel for trackin)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (g as it exists)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -408.2400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (in American secondary schools. She concludes that a fitting model would be a combination of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (the contest mobility model and the optimization process )' 280.9200 0.0000 TD (i.e., students move both up and down,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -280.9200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (although mostly up. T)Tj 109.0800 0.0000 TD (his process occu)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (rs with the partic)Tj 80.8800 0.0000 TD (ipation of the stude)Tj 92.2800 0.0000 TD (nts, and as their)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -360.7200 -14.4000 TD (preferences i)Tj 61.3200 0.0000 TD (n course selecti)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (on are taken into a)Tj 88.4400 0.0000 TD (ccount, there a)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (re compromises ma)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD (de by both)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -387.4800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (students and school officials. The author finds that there is a great deal more track mobility than )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (is commonly believed, that these changes take place in every year of high school, and that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (background characteristics \(gender, race, income\) can have a)' 291.8400 0.0000 TD ( large influence on the direction of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -291.7800 -14.4000 TD (change.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Hallinan, M. T. and Kubitschek, W. N. \(1999\). )Tj 232.3200 0.0000 TD (Curriculum Differentiation and High School)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -232.3200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Achievement )Tj 67.8000 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 3.0000 0.0000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Social Psychology of Education 3: 41-62.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -34.8000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The authors of this study examined the relationship between curriculum differentiation)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (and growth in student achievement in high school using two data sets with two different)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (measures of curricular differentiation )Tj 190.4400 0.0000 TD (tracks and ability groups. Tracks are distinct)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -190.3800 -14.4000 TD (instructional programs for students; a typical structure includes Academic, General, and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Vocational tracks. Students may also be broken down into units based on their academic ability,)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (called ability gro)Tj 81.2400 0.0000 TD (ups. A common struc)Tj 105.6000 0.0000 TD (ture of these gro)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD (ups may include Adv)Tj 102.2400 0.0000 TD (anced, Honors,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -367.2000 -14.4000 TD (Regular, and Basic)Tj 90.8400 0.0000 TD ( groups.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -54.8400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Data from the National Education Longitudinal Study \(NELS\) were used to analyze the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (effects of trac)Tj 65.6400 0.0000 TD (k location on growt)Tj 93.6000 0.0000 TD (h in achievement.)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD ( The effects of a)Tj 80.6400 0.0000 TD (bility group level o)Tj 91.6800 0.0000 TD (n growth)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.3400 -14.4000 TD (in achievement w)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (ere also studied e)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (mploying longitudina)Tj 103.8000 0.0000 TD (l data from the Abi)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (lity Grouping Projec)Tj 98.6400 0.0000 TD (t.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -460.8600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The authors estimated statistical models that provided a conservative test of the effects of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (curriculum diffe)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD (rentiation on ach)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (ievement; after)Tj 72.1200 0.0000 TD ( eliminating all eff)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (ects that could be)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD ( attributed to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -403.2000 -14.4000 TD (confounds, they w)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (ere left with re)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (sidual effects th)Tj 75.8400 0.0000 TD (at could be attrib)Tj 80.8800 0.0000 TD (uted solely to trac)Tj 85.5600 0.0000 TD (k or ability)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -400.5000 -14.4000 TD (group assignment.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD (The authors found)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD ( that students in the h)Tj 102.3600 0.0000 TD (igher tracks or g)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD (roups benefitted)Tj 77.5200 0.0000 TD ( from a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -381.7800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (differentiated curriculum, while those in the lower tracks or groups did not. They suggest that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (closer attention b)Tj 82.5600 0.0000 TD (e paid to how instru)Tj 95.2800 0.0000 TD (ctional, interpe)Tj 71.8800 0.0000 TD (rsonal, and institu)Tj 85.6800 0.0000 TD (tional influence)Tj 74.8800 0.0000 TD (s operate)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -410.2200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (across track and ability groups in order to determine how to reduce the negative effects of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (grouping.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Hamilton, L. S. \(1998\). )Tj 123.7200 0.0000 TD (Gender Differences on High School Science Achievement Tests: Do)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -123.7200 -14.3400 TD (Format and Content Matter? )Tj 146.4000 0.0000 TD ( Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 20: 179-195.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -146.4000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (In this article, th)Tj 78.6000 0.0000 TD (e author explore)Tj 77.7600 0.0000 TD (s gender differ)Tj 69.7200 0.0000 TD (ences in high scho)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (ol science achie)Tj 75.7200 0.0000 TD (vement test)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -389.9400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (scores and asks if they might result less from differences in ability or teaching methods than from)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (the format and co)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD (ntent of the exams)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD ( themselves. Data)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD ( for her analyse)Tj 74.0400 0.0000 TD (s come from multiple)Tj ET endstream endobj 104 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 121 0 R /Contents 105 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 105 0 obj << /Length 7366 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (49)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -192.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The author addresses the question of whether a violent school climate affects the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.3400 TD (educational outcomes of all students, and not just those who actually commit violence. Using)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (data from High Sch)Tj 94.2000 0.0000 TD (ool and Beyond, he c)Tj 101.5200 0.0000 TD (onstructs a school)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD ( violence index re)Tj 85.4400 0.0000 TD (flecting principa)Tj 78.8400 0.0000 TD (ls )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -445.8600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (assessments of how severe three problems )Tj 214.5600 0.0000 TD (student fighting, student-teacher conflict, and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -214.5600 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (weapons possessio)Tj 90.2400 0.0000 TD (n )Tj 18.0000 0.0000 TD (are in their scho)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (ols. Defined in this)Tj 94.3200 0.0000 TD ( way, violence is m)Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (ore prevalent in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -372.2400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (public than private schools, and the impact of violence falls disproportionately on Hispanic and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (African-Amer)Tj 67.6800 0.0000 TD (ican students.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -31.6800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Using probit regression, Grogger explores the effect of violence on several educational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (outcomes while controlling for confounding factors such as the student )Tj 344.5200 0.0000 TD (s )Tj 12.9600 0.0000 TD (violence-proneness, )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -357.4800 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (race, and famil)Tj 71.4000 0.0000 TD (y background, as)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD ( well as a variety)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD ( of school chara)Tj 76.0800 0.0000 TD (cteristics. Even)Tj 76.2000 0.0000 TD ( with these)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -386.2200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (controls, school violence has an effect on educational attainment. Compared to the least violent)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (schools, moderate levels of violence reduce the likelihood of graduation by 5.1 percent on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (average, and lower the likelihood of college attendance by 6.9 percent. If school violence w)Tj 442.2000 0.0000 TD (ere)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -442.2000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (cut in half, colle)Tj 77.8800 0.0000 TD (ge attendance r)Tj 72.3600 0.0000 TD (ates would rise by)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD ( 5 percent.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -237.1200 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Grogger, J. and Eide, E. \(1995\). )Tj 165.4800 0.0000 TD (Changes in College Skills and the Rise in the College Wage)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -165.4200 -14.4000 TD (Premium. )Tj 53.6400 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Human Resources 30\(2\): 280-310.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -53.6400 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Between 1979 and the late 1980s, the difference in mean wages between male college gra)Tj 429.8400 0.0000 TD (duates)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -429.7800 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (and male high scho)Tj 92.8800 0.0000 TD (ol graduates incr)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (eased dramatic)Tj 71.4000 0.0000 TD (ally. This study exa)Tj 96.9600 0.0000 TD (mines how much of th)Tj 107.2800 0.0000 TD (is)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -448.3200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (change was due to changes in the skill level of the typical college graduate. Focusing on the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (skills that students obtain while attending college, the study specifically analyzes the importance)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (of changes in the)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD ( distribution of coll)Tj 92.4000 0.0000 TD (ege majors, and c)Tj 83.7600 0.0000 TD (hanges in major-s)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (pecific wage pr)Tj 73.6800 0.0000 TD (emiums,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.4600 -14.4000 TD (in determining cha)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (nges in the aggre)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (gate college wa)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (ge premium among e)Tj 101.5200 0.0000 TD (ntry-level worke)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD (rs. Data)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.7200 -14.3400 TD (from NLS-72 and HS&)Tj 112.9200 0.0000 TD (B, with comparison s)Tj 102.0000 0.0000 TD (amples drawn fro)Tj 83.7600 0.0000 TD (m CPS, are used to est)Tj 108.0000 0.0000 TD (imate)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -406.6800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (major-specific wage premiums earned in the late 1970s and changes in major-specific wage)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (premiums during the early 1980s. These price data are then combined with data on the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (distribution of college majors to calculate the effect of changes in the major distribution on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (changes in the aggregate wage premium and in the male-female wage gap among college)' 427.2000 0.0000 TD (-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -427.2000 -14.3400 TD (educated workers. Results indicate that changes in skills acquired during precollegiate education)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (had nothing to do with changes in the college wage premium for men, but for women the returns)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (to mathematics abi)' 90.6000 0.0000 TD (lity increased by)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD ( so much during the e)Tj 103.5600 0.0000 TD (arly 1980s that est)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD (imates of the rise)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD ( in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -443.1600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (the college wage premium that fail to account for math ability may overstate the increase in the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (value of a college education by a factor of two. Changes in the skills acquired during college)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (played an important role in rising college wage premiums for men. Changes in major)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (distribution during the 1980s when students switched from low-skill to high-skill fields of study)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (account for almost 25 percent of the change in the aggregate wage premium for men. A)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (substantial portion of the change in the college wage premium reflects, therefore, not only that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (college degree)Tj 69.3600 0.0000 TD (s have become mor)Tj 92.7600 0.0000 TD (e valuable, but tha)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD (t students are obta)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (ining more valuabl)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (e)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -427.4400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (degrees. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Hallinan, M. T. \(1996\). )Tj 119.0400 0.0000 TD (Track Mobility in Secondary School. )Tj 182.8800 0.0000 TD ( Social Forces 74\(3\): 983-1002.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -301.9200 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Tracking is a commonly used practice in American secondary schools but is often criticized. )Tj ET endstream endobj 106 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 121 0 R /Contents 107 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 107 0 obj << /Length 6705 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (48)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (research on the effects of enrollment in the MPCP cannot be explained by unobserved)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (differences between MPCP applicants who attended private schools and non-applicants who)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (chose to remain in)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD ( public schools.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -88.1400 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Grogger, J. \(1996\). )Tj 103.2000 0.0000 TD (School Expenditures and Post-Schooling Earnings: Evidence from High)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -103.1400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (School and Beyond)Tj 92.5200 0.0000 TD (. )Tj 9.7200 0.0000 TD ( Review of Economi)Tj 95.5200 0.0000 TD (cs and Statistics )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 80.4000 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (78\(4\): 628-37.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -278.1600 -14.3400 TD (How the resources available to a school affect the post-schooling wages of its students is a key)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (issue for education research on school finance. However, researc)Tj 310.2000 0.0000 TD (h conducted over the past two)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -310.1400 -14.4000 TD (decades, while showing that there is an effect, has produced mixed conclusions regarding the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (magnitude of this effect. Studies based on state-level data generally report large effects of school)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (quality on subseque)' 95.2800 0.0000 TD (nt wages; studies ba)Tj 96.2400 0.0000 TD (sed on less aggre)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (gated measures t)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (end to report smal)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (l)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -439.6800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (effects. Using wage data from High School and Beyond and NCES per-pupil expenditure data,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (this paper analyzes the extent to which measurement errors are the source of this discrepa)Tj 428.8800 0.0000 TD (ncy and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -428.8800 -14.4000 TD (estimates the effect of school expenditures on the entry-level post-schooling earnings of workers)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (who attended public schools. Results of regression analyses show that the discrepancies reported)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (in the literature are largely due to failure to fully account for differences in family backgr)Tj 427.2000 0.0000 TD (ound,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -427.2000 -14.4000 TD (state effects, and measurement errors. When these factors are c)Tj 304.2000 0.0000 TD (onsidered, the analyses reveal)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -304.2000 -14.4000 TD (that school spending does affect post-schooling earnings but not by much.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Grogger, J. \(1996\). )Tj 103.2000 0.0000 TD (Does School Quality Explain the Recent Black/White Wage Trend? )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -103.1400 -14.3400 TD (Journal of Labor Economics 14\(2\): 231-253.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Historically ther)Tj 78.2400 0.0000 TD (e have been lar)Tj 71.9400 0.0000 TD (ge difference)Tj 62.6400 0.0000 TD (s in the wages ear)Tj 85.0800 0.0000 TD (ned by whites and b)Tj 95.8800 0.0000 TD (lacks in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -393.7800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (comparable jobs. However, between 1940 and 1980, the black/white wage differential narr)Tj 440.8800 0.0000 TD (owed)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -440.8800 -14.3400 TD (considerably. The author tried to determine whether the marked slowdown in the wage)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (convergence since around 1980 has anything to do with educational quality. He is motivated by)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (what he sees as a major contradiction in the literature on this topic. Juhn, Murphy, and Pierce)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (\(1991\) report that differences in the quality of schools could explain about half of the recent)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (slowdown \(the other half being seen by them as a result of lower educational attainment by)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (blacks along with the 1980 )Tj 133.2000 0.0000 TD (s trend of returning to school\), while Boozer, Krueger, and Wolkon)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -133.1400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (\(1992\) conclude)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD ( that school quality)Tj 91.6800 0.0000 TD ( is unlikely to expla)Tj 94.6800 0.0000 TD (in the recent bre)Tj 77.4000 0.0000 TD (ak in the black/wh)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (ite)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -430.0800 -14.4000 TD (wage converge)Tj 72.0000 0.0000 TD (nce trend. Both of)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD ( these claims are)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD ( based on indirec)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (t evidence, a ga)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (p which this)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -396.7800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (research attempts to fill. Data from NLS:72 and HSB provide earnings information for two)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (separate group)' 70.0800 0.0000 TD (s of recent high sc)Tj 87.1200 0.0000 TD (hool graduates )Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (the Class of 1972 the)Tj 101.2800 0.0000 TD ( Class of 1982 . Thes)Tj 101.2800 0.0000 TD (e)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -441.9600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (data sets also provide information about school quality \(e.g., pupil/teacher ratio, length of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (school year, teacher education, school size, and racial segregation\) and students )Tj 385.3200 0.0000 TD ( background)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -385.3200 -14.4000 TD (characteristics. The author finds that by the early 1970 )Tj 268.0800 0.0000 TD (s, there was no longer any significant)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -268.0200 -14.3400 TD (difference in the average quality of education being received by blacks and whites, a)Tj 404.8800 0.0000 TD (nd concludes)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -404.8800 -14.4000 TD (that the recent black/white wage trend cannot be adequately explained by differenc)Tj 397.2000 0.0000 TD (es in school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -397.1400 -14.4000 TD (quality. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Grogger, J. \(1997\). )Tj 103.2000 0.0000 TD (Local Violence and Educational Attainment. )Tj 220.3200 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Human Resources)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -323.5200 -14.4000 TD (32: 659-82.)Tj ET endstream endobj 108 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 121 0 R /Contents 109 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 109 0 obj << /Length 7158 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (47)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (from welfare, suggesting that gains in supply and subsidy of preschooling allow greater)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (expression of de)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (mand by low-income)Tj 101.8800 0.0000 TD ( families.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -180.3600 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Georges, A. \(2001\). "The GED Certificate and the Poverty Status of Adult Women." Journal of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (Children and Poverty 7\(1\): 49-61)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 161.7600 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -125.7000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (The author asks w)Tj 87.4800 0.0000 TD (hether having a G)Tj 85.4400 0.0000 TD (eneral Educatio)Tj 74.7600 0.0000 TD (nal Development \()Tj 89.1600 0.0000 TD (GED\) certifica)Tj 70.6800 0.0000 TD (te)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -443.5200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (reduces the probability that a woman will ever be in poverty. The study also examines the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (probability of entering poverty for women with differing levels of education, as well as the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (probability of a poor woman exiting poverty. The analysis differentiates between high school)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (dropouts, GED certificate holders, and high school graduates. Data for this study come from the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (National Longitudi)' 91.6800 0.0000 TD (nal Study of Youth \(N)Tj 107.2800 0.0000 TD (LSY\). A discrete)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (-time event histor)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD (y model is used to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -365.0400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (examine entry into poverty, and a similar model is used to examine poor women )Tj 389.5200 0.0000 TD (s exit out of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -389.4600 -14.4000 TD (poverty. A person-year data file is used to estimate the discrete-time model. Each participant)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (has an individual record for each year until the event occurs or until the last year of the panel. )' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (The analysis of the)' 90.8400 0.0000 TD (se data includes v)Tj 84.8400 0.0000 TD (ariables to acc)Tj 68.4000 0.0000 TD (ount for changes)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD ( in education, empl)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (oyment,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -415.7400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (decision to have an early birth, number of children born to the woman, marital status, local area)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (unemployment rate, geographical region of residence, and the woman's age. These women ar)Tj 449.0400 0.0000 TD (e)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -448.9800 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (separated into c)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (ategories based)Tj 73.4400 0.0000 TD ( on their educatio)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (n level.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -196.0200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The findings from NLSY indicate that passing the GED test alone may not be an effective)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (labor market intervention for high school dropouts. These women have a higher probability of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (entering into poverty than those individuals who graduated from high school. High school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (dropouts without a GED are even more likely to enter poverty than GED certificate holders)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (and/or high school graduates. The study also reveals that women who enter poverty have a)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (marginally better)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD ( chance of exitin)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD (g poverty if they ha)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD (ve a GED. Likewis)Tj 91.8000 0.0000 TD (e, a high school gr)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (aduate)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -435.4800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (has a significantly better chance of exiting poverty than a GED certificate holder or a high school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (dropout. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Goldhaber,D., Eide, E., Brewer, D. and Rees, D. \(1999\). )Tj 281.6400 0.0000 TD (Testing for Sample Selection in the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -281.5800 -14.3400 TD (Milwaukee School Choice Experiment. )Tj 193.0800 0.0000 TD ( Economics of Education )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 123.2400 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (18: 259-267.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -316.2600 -14.4000 TD (A major question in school policy debates concerns the effect of school voucher programs on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (public and private)' 86.5200 0.0000 TD ( school enrollment)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (s and their subsequ)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD (ent impact on stude)Tj 93.6000 0.0000 TD (nt academic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -360.9000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (performance. Analyses of the Milwaukee Parent Choice Program \(MPCP\) data \(sometimes)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (referred to as the )' 88.9200 0.0000 TD (Milwaukee school choice experiment )Tj 184.5600 0.0000 TD (\) have yielded inconsistent results. A)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -273.4200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (number of resea)Tj 77.0400 0.0000 TD (rchers have att)Tj 69.7200 0.0000 TD (empted to address)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD ( this problem by emplo)Tj 111.3600 0.0000 TD (ying econometric)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -344.5800 -14.3400 TD (methods to accoun)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (t for differenc)Tj 66.3600 0.0000 TD (es between stude)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (nts who have or ha)Tj 90.4800 0.0000 TD (ve not chosen to pa)Tj 92.5200 0.0000 TD (rticipate)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -420.3600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (in the MPCP. Despite the improvements over conventional ANOVA regressions afforded by)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (invoking multigroup or selection equation techniques, few analyses have taken advantage of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (experimental structure of the Milwaukee data. In the current study, the authors use selection)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (equation techniques to compare public high school students who did or did not apply to the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (MPCP. The analysis demonstrates that in spite of salient differences between these two groups)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (of students, studen)Tj 89.6400 0.0000 TD (ts who applied to the)Tj 99.9600 0.0000 TD ( program but enrol)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (led in public school)Tj 94.3200 0.0000 TD (s because their)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -373.4400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (private schools of choice were oversubscribed did not differ with respect to unobserved)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (characteristics on tests of reading or math achievement. As a result, the findings of earlier)Tj ET endstream endobj 110 0 obj << /Type /Pages /Kids [ 102 0 R 100 0 R 97 0 R 95 0 R 93 0 R ] /Count 5 /Parent 2 0 R >> endobj 111 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 121 0 R /Contents 112 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 112 0 obj << /Length 7583 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (46)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (students at public school who take the same science classes as those who attend private school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (show higher mean gains in performance. This research suggests that curricular positions )Tj 437.5200 0.0000 TD (as)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -437.5200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (defined by distinc)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (tive combinations o)Tj 94.6800 0.0000 TD (f coursework )Tj 74.7600 0.0000 TD (provide a better)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD ( understanding of)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD ( the effects)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -414.3600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (of school organization on student performance than conventional measures of tracking.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -57.6000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Fuller, B., Eggers-Pierola, C., Holloway, S. D., Liang, X. and Rambaud, M. F. \(1996\). )Tj 425.8800 0.0000 TD (Rich)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -425.8200 -14.4000 TD (Culture, Poor Markets: Why Do Latino Parents Forgo Preschooling? )Tj 342.2400 0.0000 TD ( Teachers College)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -342.2400 -14.4000 TD (Record 97\(3\): 400-418.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg /F6 12.0000 Tf (The authors examine data from the 1991 National Household Education Survey conducted by the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (National Center for Education Statistics to determine why Latino parents are less likely than)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (parents from othe)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (r ethnic groups to s)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (end their childre)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (n to formal presc)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (hools. Among ethnic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -336.3600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (groups in the U.S., Latino parents disproportionately choose not to send their children to formal)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (preschools. Compa)' 94.9200 0.0000 TD (rative economic)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD ( and demographic)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD ( variables are c)Tj 72.0000 0.0000 TD (onsidered, includ)Tj 82.5600 0.0000 TD (ing family)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -412.0200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (economy, social structure, and parental educational practices. The authors conclude that the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (inability of Latino families to purchase formal preschooling, the availability of a larger and more)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (cohesive family s)' 83.8800 0.0000 TD (tructure, educa)Tj 71.0400 0.0000 TD (tional backgroun)Tj 80.8800 0.0000 TD (ds, and Latino par)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (enting practice)Tj 70.8000 0.0000 TD (s help explain)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -393.1200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (the disparity among Latino and other ethnic groups in preschool enrollment. These factors do)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (not completely ac)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (count for the ave)Tj 80.7600 0.0000 TD (rsion, however, a)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (s even when income)Tj 97.4400 0.0000 TD (, education, fami)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (ly)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.3600 -14.3400 TD (structure, and pa)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD (renting practic)Tj 69.4800 0.0000 TD (es are account)Tj 67.6800 0.0000 TD (ed for, Latinos sti)Tj 84.5400 0.0000 TD (ll select prescho)Tj 77.1600 0.0000 TD (ol at a lower rate)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -378.3600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (than other groups. The authors study four Latina mothers for insight into the perspectives Latina)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (mothers have on fo)' 92.1600 0.0000 TD (rmal preschool pr)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (ograms. They find)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD ( that the developme)Tj 94.2000 0.0000 TD (nt of Spanish)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -362.0400 -14.3400 TD (language skills an)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (d the ability to eff)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (ectively communic)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD (ate, a sense of p)Tj 76.0800 0.0000 TD (ersonal connec)Tj 71.4000 0.0000 TD (tion with)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -410.8200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (the child-care provider, and the social development of their children according to established)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (norms of )Tj 51.2400 0.0000 TD (independence )Tj 71.0400 0.0000 TD ( figure importantly into Latinas )Tj 154.5600 0.0000 TD ( assessment of their children )Tj 140.4000 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -417.2400 -14.4000 TD (education. These features are seen to be lacking in American pre-schools. The a)Tj 388.2000 0.0000 TD (uthors conclude)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -388.1400 -14.4000 TD (that Latina mothers are not particularly averse to formal preschool education, but rather are)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (dissatisfied with the character of the pre-school options available to them. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Fuller, B. and Liang, X. \(1996\). )Tj 162.3600 0.0000 TD (Market Failure: Estimating Inequality in Preschool)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -162.3600 -14.4000 TD (Availability. )Tj 65.7600 0.0000 TD ( Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 18\(1\): 31-49.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -65.7000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Although it is often a)Tj 102.0000 0.0000 TD (ssumed that the supp)Tj 100.3200 0.0000 TD (ly of preschool an)Tj 86.1600 0.0000 TD (d child-care or)Tj 69.7200 0.0000 TD (ganizations is)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -358.2000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (insufficient to meet growing demand for preschool and child-care services, recent empirica)Tj 436.2000 0.0000 TD (l)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -436.2000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (findings suggest tha)Tj 96.0000 0.0000 TD (t preschool supply m)Tj 100.3200 0.0000 TD (ay be sufficient)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD ( overall, given cu)Tj 83.1600 0.0000 TD (rrent family)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -353.2800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (preferences and demand patterns. Using multivariate models to analyse U.S. Census data, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (authors examine d)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD (ifferences in p)Tj 68.4000 0.0000 TD (er-child availa)Tj 68.7600 0.0000 TD (bility and identify e)Tj 94.3200 0.0000 TD (conomic and demog)Tj 97.2000 0.0000 TD (raphic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.4600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (factors that help account for these differences. Results of the analyses show that there are)Tj 430.2000 0.0000 TD ( clear)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -430.2000 -14.4000 TD (inequalities in availability associated with county wealth and demographic features. Counties)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (with higher median income and greater concentrations of well-educated, professionally employed)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (parents display more robust preschool markets. However, working-class and rural counties)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (dominated by larger families display lower levels in the availability of preschools. The supply of)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (preschools is show)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (n to be consistently)Tj 93.0000 0.0000 TD ( higher in communitie)Tj 106.3200 0.0000 TD (s with higher income)Tj 100.9200 0.0000 TD ( supplements)Tj ET endstream endobj 113 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 121 0 R /Contents 114 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 114 0 obj << /Length 7938 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (45)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Americans who liv)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (e in large cities f)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (are better in pr)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (ivate than in public)Tj 92.2800 0.0000 TD ( schools in terms of t)Tj 100.3200 0.0000 TD (est)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -433.6800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (score improvements. Private schools, and particularly non-religious ones, also increase the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (probability of attending a selective college and the probability of staying in college. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Finn, J. and Gerber, S. \(1998\) )Tj 155.1600 0.0000 TD (Learning Document Skills at School and at Work. )Tj 245.2800 0.0000 TD ( Journal of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -400.4400 -14.4000 TD (Adolescent and Adult Literacy 42\(1\): 2-15. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (According to the U)Tj 92.1600 0.0000 TD (.S. Department of)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD ( Education, in 1993 t)Tj 100.3200 0.0000 TD (here were over)Tj 70.9200 0.0000 TD ( 90 million functiona)Tj 101.0400 0.0000 TD (lly)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -449.5800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (illiterate Americans. With advances in technology, the literacy demands of the workplace are)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (rising. Assuming the trend continues, millions of Americans will not be able to find work, no)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (matter what the oc)' 88.8000 0.0000 TD (cupation, becau)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (se of their limited l)Tj 91.3200 0.0000 TD (iteracy skills. Th)Tj 83.2800 0.0000 TD (e authors of this pa)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (per ask)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -429.7200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (two questions: whether the skills needed for work are actually taught in school and whether the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (workplace has be)Tj 83.0400 0.0000 TD (come a primary te)Tj 86.7600 0.0000 TD (acher of nece)Tj 63.6000 0.0000 TD (ssary job skills. The)Tj 99.0000 0.0000 TD (y theorize that, i)Tj 77.8800 0.0000 TD (n fact,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -410.2200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (employers already play a major role in teaching necessary skill sets and thus in literacy training. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (The authors describe two different types of reading strategies: reading-to-do and reading-to-)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (learn. The former describes reading as a means to accomplish a single, defined task. The latter,)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (on the other hand, uses strategies to remember information read. Reading done within the school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (environment is typically reading-to-learn. The literacy required at the workplace is reading-to-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (do. Because the work environment requires understanding of a wide variety of print media and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (document types, far more than one has access to in school, one does not learn how to create or)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (understand those types of documents until they are exposed to them. Using data from the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Department of Ed)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (ucation )Tj 39.1800 0.0000 TD (s National Adult Lite)Tj 101.6400 0.0000 TD (racy Survey \(NA)Tj 81.7200 0.0000 TD (LS\), the authors f)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (ind that most)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -392.2200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (adults learn particular literacy skills in the workplace. At the same time, though, they find that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (more schooling is, i)' 94.6800 0.0000 TD (n fact, related)Tj 65.4000 0.0000 TD ( to better perfor)Tj 74.7600 0.0000 TD (mance on documen)Tj 93.1200 0.0000 TD (t-related tasks.)Tj 69.8400 0.0000 TD ( Quite)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -397.7400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (simply, the workplace is a )Tj 132.4800 0.0000 TD (provider )Tj 44.5200 0.0000 TD ( of skills as much as it is a )Tj 132.9600 0.0000 TD (receiver )Tj 42.3600 0.0000 TD ( of them. But, school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -352.2600 -14.4000 TD (does provide a significant amount of literacy required in the workplace. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Friedkin, N. and S. Thomas. \(1997\). )Tj 183.0000 0.0000 TD (Social Positions in Schooling. )Tj 150.8400 0.0000 TD ( Sociology of Education)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -333.7800 -14.4000 TD (70\(4\):239-255.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (This article deve)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (lops the idea that a)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD ( track is a type of)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD ( social position in stu)Tj 102.1200 0.0000 TD (dents )Tj 29.2800 0.0000 TD ( relations with)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -383.8200 -14.4000 TD (particular teac)Tj 68.0400 0.0000 TD (hers and course)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD ( work over the cou)Tj 89.7600 0.0000 TD (rse of their scho)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (oling careers. B)Tj 75.4800 0.0000 TD (ased on analysis)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -384.4800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (of students )Tj 56.2800 0.0000 TD ( profiles of course work obtained from High School and Beyond, the authors define)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -56.2800 -14.4000 TD (eight curricular positions that involve distinctive combinations of high school course work. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Using Hierachical Linear Modeling, they report the effects of curricular positions on senior-year)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (academic achie)' 73.3200 0.0000 TD (vement. Results indi)Tj 98.4000 0.0000 TD (cate that these c)Tj 76.0800 0.0000 TD (urricular positio)Tj 76.9200 0.0000 TD (ns are associate)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (d with)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -399.1200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (students )Tj 43.3200 0.0000 TD ( background characteristics \(SES, gender, race\) and attitudes \(college plans and locus of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -43.3200 -14.4000 TD (control\) and affect students )Tj 134.6400 0.0000 TD ( academic achievements during their senior year when controlling for)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -134.5800 -14.3400 TD (the effects of background characteristics, tenth-grade achievement, and public or)Tj 386.5200 0.0000 TD ( private school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -386.4600 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (attendance. Res)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD (ults are consisten)Tj 82.5600 0.0000 TD (t with reform eff)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD (orts that seek to dim)Tj 97.3200 0.0000 TD (inish the negative)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD ( effects)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -422.0400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (of status characteristics such as race and gender on academic achieve)Tj 330.8400 0.0000 TD (ment by changing the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -330.8400 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (profile of studen)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (ts )Tj 12.0000 0.0000 TD ( course work. Ef)Tj 82.0800 0.0000 TD (forts that encour)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (age female, mino)Tj 82.8000 0.0000 TD (rity, and low-SES stu)Tj 102.7200 0.0000 TD (dents)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -437.2200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (to enter more academically rigorous programs, for example, lessen the negative effec)Tj 407.8800 0.0000 TD (ts of status)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -407.8200 -14.4000 TD (characteristics on their achievement. Private school education offers no distinctive advantages)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (over public school education for students who are in similar high-quality programs. Moreover,)Tj ET endstream endobj 115 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 136 0 R /Contents 116 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 116 0 obj << /Length 7723 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (44)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 15.0000 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( The authors conducted a meta-analysis to provide insights into issues related to parental)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -15.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (involvement rese)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (arch. They felt)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD ( that too many incons)Tj 103.3200 0.0000 TD (istencies existed)Tj 78.2400 0.0000 TD ( regarding the me)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD (asurable)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -420.9000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (positive effect of parental involvement on students' academic achievement or a lack thereof. The)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (strength of the ge)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (neral relationsh)Tj 74.1600 0.0000 TD (ip between measu)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (red parental inv)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (olvement and stude)Tj 93.2400 0.0000 TD (nts')Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -411.7800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (academic achievement is examined. 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Only those articles releva)Tj 454.2000 0.0000 TD (nt)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -454.2000 -14.4000 TD (to the authors' topic and those which reported their own empirical findings were kept as being)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (potentially usable)' 84.9600 0.0000 TD ( for this meta-ana)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD (lysis. Twenty-five)Tj 90.2400 0.0000 TD ( studies were fou)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (nd to be adequate)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD ( for this)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -424.9200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (analysis, and virtually all of these had a different definition for "parental involvement. )Tj 418.2000 0.0000 TD ( Each)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -418.1400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (effect size mea)Tj 71.6400 0.0000 TD (sure \(i.e., the c)Tj 70.4400 0.0000 TD (orrelation coef)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (ficient between)Tj 73.4400 0.0000 TD ( parental involve)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (ment and students')Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -366.1200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (academic achievement\) was coded according to seven study features: the study ID; sample size)Tj 455.8800 0.0000 TD (;)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -455.8800 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (the subjects' appr)Tj 82.6800 0.0000 TD (oximate average)Tj 78.7200 0.0000 TD ( age; ethnicity of)Tj 80.8800 0.0000 TD ( the subjects; type)Tj 86.2800 0.0000 TD ( of measure for a)Tj 81.0000 0.0000 TD (cademic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -409.5000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (achievement; area of academic achievement; and parental involvement dimension.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD (Two types of meta-analysis were used in this study. The first was based on study features)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (and included all correlation coefficients between parent involvement and students' achievement. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (The second was a study effects meta-analysis; in studies with multiple effect sizes, the numbers)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (are averaged resulting in one measure, which is then used for analysis. General linear model)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (\(GLM\) analysis was also used to assess the effect of each study feature on the correla)Tj 409.2000 0.0000 TD (tion)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -409.1400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (coefficients be)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD (tween parental)Tj 70.0800 0.0000 TD ( involvement and stu)Tj 100.3200 0.0000 TD (dents' academic)Tj 75.6000 0.0000 TD ( achievement.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -316.0800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The authors found that parental aspiration/expectation for children's education achievement has)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (the strongest relationship with students' academic achievement. Parental home supervision was)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (discovered to have the weakest correlation to students' academic success. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Figlio, D., and Stone, J. \(In press\). )Tj 176.8800 0.0000 TD (Are Private Schools Really Better? )Tj 174.4800 0.0000 TD ( Research in Labor)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -351.3600 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Economics.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The authors question whether private school attendance improves student outcomes. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (Earlier studies, most of which compared public and Catholic schools, found a strong, beneficial)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (effect resulting from Catholic school attendance. However, this effect might result from)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (selection bias; in other words, there may be unobserved differences between students who attend)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Catholic school an)' 89.2800 0.0000 TD (d those who attend p)Tj 99.2400 0.0000 TD (ublic school. This p)Tj 97.6800 0.0000 TD (roblem is typically)Tj 90.0000 0.0000 TD ( addressed \(if it i)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -456.7200 -14.4000 TD (addressed at all)Tj 73.8000 0.0000 TD (\) by using the studen)Tj 99.9600 0.0000 TD (t )Tj 7.3200 0.0000 TD (s religion as a pro)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (xy for the likeliho)Tj 86.2800 0.0000 TD (od of choosing priv)Tj 93.6000 0.0000 TD (ate)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -446.1000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (school. Unfortunately, religion is a poor proxy because it is endogenous to the process that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (explains student a)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (chievement.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -49.8600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (The authors propose an improved model where the likelihood of attending private school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.4000 TD (is proxied by a set of factors that discriminate between private and public school attendees but do)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (not affect student achievement. Their model also extends past research by including non-)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (religious private)Tj 78.2400 0.0000 TD ( schools, as well a)Tj 86.8200 0.0000 TD (s religious and publ)Tj 94.3200 0.0000 TD (ic ones. The model)Tj 94.2000 0.0000 TD ( is tested using data)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -353.5800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (from NELS:88.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 36.0000 -14.4000 TD (The results show that neither religious nor non-religious private schools have a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -36.0000 -14.3400 TD (significantly positive effect on either test scores or high school completion. However, African-)Tj ET endstream endobj 117 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 136 0 R /Contents 118 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 118 0 obj << /Length 7520 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (43)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Elliott, M. \(1998\). )Tj 99.7200 0.0000 TD (School Finance and Opportunities to Learn: Does Money Well Spent)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -99.6600 -14.3400 TD (Enhance Students )Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD ( Achievement? )Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD ( Sociology of Education 71\(3\): 223-245.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -166.2600 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (With widespread)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD ( inequalities in sch)Tj 89.6400 0.0000 TD (ools )Tj 24.0000 0.0000 TD ( access to scarc)Tj 73.3200 0.0000 TD (e financial res)Tj 67.0800 0.0000 TD (ources, it has bec)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (ome)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -417.9600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (important to understand the relationship between school finance and student achievement. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (Parents and educators often assume that more money translates into better schools and higher)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (achievement, bu)' 78.4800 0.0000 TD (t there is conside)Tj 80.8800 0.0000 TD (rable controver)Tj 72.7200 0.0000 TD (sy among scholars o)Tj 97.5600 0.0000 TD (ver the size of th)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (e effects)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -409.4400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (and the specific pathways by which financial resources translate into more effective schools. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (This study examines)Tj 98.6400 0.0000 TD ( three related q)Tj 71.4000 0.0000 TD (uestions: Do educa)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (tional expenditur)Tj 81.6000 0.0000 TD (es affect stude)Tj 68.4000 0.0000 TD (nts )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -411.1800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (achievement? How does access to learning opportunities affect math and science achie)Tj 415.2000 0.0000 TD (vement? If)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -415.1400 -14.4000 TD (funds are allocated to provide critical opportunities to learn, do students learn more? Using)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (hierarchical linear modeling, this study specifically examined the direct effects of school)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (expenditures on math and science achievement and the indirect effects of expenditures on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (achievement through schools )Tj 143.7600 0.0000 TD ( provision of learning opportunities. Results show that more)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -143.7600 -14.4000 TD (money is spent in schools where teachers tend to be more educated and more experienced,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (classes tend to be)' 83.5200 0.0000 TD ( smaller, and tea)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD (chers put greate)Tj 75.7200 0.0000 TD (r emphasis on highe)Tj 96.2400 0.0000 TD (r order thinking in)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD ( math)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -421.5600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (rather than memorization of facts. In schools where less money is spent, however, classes tend)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (to be larger and t)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (eachers are mo)Tj 71.6400 0.0000 TD (re likely to empha)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (size the releva)Tj 68.4000 0.0000 TD (nce of math and sc)Tj 89.7600 0.0000 TD (ience and to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -397.7400 -14.4000 TD (make greater us)Tj 75.7200 0.0000 TD (e of calculator)Tj 68.4000 0.0000 TD (s. These findings s)Tj 92.2800 0.0000 TD (uggest that resour)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (ces are most eff)Tj 75.3600 0.0000 TD (ective in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -396.9000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (promoting student achievement when they are used not only to hire greater numbers of more)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (educated teachers but also to encourage teachers to use effective tea)Tj 324.8400 0.0000 TD (ching strategies which)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -324.7800 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (emphasize higher)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD ( order thinking and)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD ( inquiry skills.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -175.6800 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Fan, X. \(2001\). "P)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (arental Involvem)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (ent and Students' A)Tj 92.1600 0.0000 TD (cademic Achiev)Tj 75.3600 0.0000 TD (ement: A Growth)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -337.9200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Modeling Analysis." )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 100.6800 0.0000 TD (The Journal of Experimental Education 70\(1\): 27-61.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -100.6800 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (The author looks a)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (t the relationship b)Tj 89.6400 0.0000 TD (etween parenta)Tj 72.0000 0.0000 TD (l involvement and c)Tj 94.9200 0.0000 TD (hildren )Tj 37.9200 0.0000 TD (s academic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -384.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (success in high school. Data for his analyses come from the National Education Longitudinal)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (Study of 1988 \(NELS:88\). These data were selected on the basis of its external validity, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (multiple components within the data related to parental involvement, the large sample size which)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (includes people of various ethnicities, and because NELS:88 includes both parent and student)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (data. The author used exploratory analysis to identify the dimensions of parental involvement. A)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (multivariate ana)' 77.5200 0.0000 TD (lysis of covarian)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (ce \(MANCOVA\) wa)Tj 100.3200 0.0000 TD (s then used to detec)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD (t any differenc)Tj 69.7200 0.0000 TD (es in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -420.6000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (parental involvement among the major ethnic groups. To assess the correlation between parent)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (involvement and student academic growth, latent growth modeling analysis was used. Based on)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (the analyses of th)' 83.5200 0.0000 TD (ese data, the au)Tj 73.0800 0.0000 TD (thor concludes tha)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD (t parental involve)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (ment has several)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD ( relatively)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -408.1200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (independent components. After being adjusted for socio-economic status, the reported degrees)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (of parental involvement of the four major ethnic groups were comparable. Parents' educational)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (aspirations for their children had the most significant effect on student growth. Finally, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (effects, or lack thereof, of parental involvement on students' academic growth were c)Tj 407.0400 0.0000 TD (onsistent)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -407.0400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (across groups.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 68.5200 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -68.5200 -28.7400 TD (Fan, X. and Chen, M. \(2001\). "Parental Involvement and Students' Academic Achievement: A)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (Meta-Analysis." )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 80.2800 0.0000 TD (Educational Psychology Review 13\(1\): 1-22.)Tj ET endstream endobj 119 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 136 0 R /Contents 120 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 120 0 obj << /Length 7692 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (42)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (find a consistent positive effect across cohorts, although the effect has become weaker over)Tj 437.5200 0.0000 TD ( time. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -437.5200 -14.3400 TD (The authors attribute this weakening in part to increasing opportunities for elite college graduates)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (to achieve high income without attending graduate school. Using multinomial logit regression,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (they also estimate)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD ( the effect of e)Tj 69.0000 0.0000 TD (lite college atte)Tj 73.2000 0.0000 TD (ndance on admissio)Tj 94.5600 0.0000 TD (n to graduate study)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD ( at a)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -414.2400 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( )Tj 5.2800 0.0000 TD (major research institution )Tj 127.8000 0.0000 TD ( \(as opposed to a less prestigious school\). They find a significant)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -133.0800 -14.4000 TD (effect for cohorts who graduated from high school in 1972 and 1980, but not for the most recent)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (\(1982\) cohort.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Eide, E. and Showalter, M. H. \(1998a\). )Tj 198.2400 0.0000 TD (The Effect of School Quality on Student Performance: A)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -198.2400 -14.4000 TD (Quantile Regression Approach. )Tj 158.2800 0.0000 TD ( Economics Letters 58: 345-350.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -158.2800 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Noting that past research often finds no effects of school resources on student test scores, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (authors suggest the problem may be that the most common statistical approaches focus on the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (average student. In other words, )Tj 164.8800 0.0000 TD (the standard methodology may miss what is crucial for policy)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -164.8200 -14.4000 TD (purposes, namely, how school resources affect achievement differently at differe)Tj 386.5200 0.0000 TD (nt points of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -386.4600 -14.4000 TD (conditional test score distribution. )Tj 168.6000 0.0000 TD ( Employing a technique known as quantile regression, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -168.5400 -14.3400 TD (authors look at the effects of several measures of school quality on mathematics test score gain at)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (five different points in the test score distribution. Data from the 10)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 321.9600 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( grade sample of High)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -327.6000 -14.4000 TD (School and Beyond are used. The authors find several effects that would not be apparent from)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (simple regression. The school year )Tj 173.6400 0.0000 TD (s length has an effect at the top of the test score distribution,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -173.5800 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (meaning that brigh)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (ter students tend to)Tj 90.9600 0.0000 TD ( benefit from a lon)Tj 89.1600 0.0000 TD (ger year. By con)Tj 82.0800 0.0000 TD (trast, per pupil)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -352.7400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (expenditures are significant at the bottom of the distribution, meaning that increasing school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (spending mainly benefits low-achieving students. Finally, higher enrollment has a positive effect)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (everywhere but at the very top \(5%\) of the distribution.)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Eide, E. and Showalte)Tj 106.3200 0.0000 TD (r, M. \(1999\). )Tj 71.2800 0.0000 TD (Factors Affecting t)Tj 90.0000 0.0000 TD (he Transmission of Ear)Tj 112.4400 0.0000 TD (nings Across)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -380.0400 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Generations: A Quantile Regression Approach. )Tj 234.8400 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Human Resources 34\(2\): 253-267.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -234.7800 -14.4000 TD (Eide, E. and Showalter, M. \(2000\). )Tj 177.6000 0.0000 TD (A Note on the Rate of Intergenerational Convergence of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -177.6000 -14.4000 TD (Earnings. )Tj 53.7600 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Population Economics 13: 159-162)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -53.7600 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (How much mobility is there in the earnings distribution across generations? In other words, do)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (the rich stay rich)Tj 80.1600 0.0000 TD ( and the poor stay p)Tj 94.2000 0.0000 TD (oor? These two c)Tj 85.0800 0.0000 TD (losely related a)Tj 72.4800 0.0000 TD (rticles address t)Tj 74.5200 0.0000 TD (hese)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -406.3800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (questions by examining correlations in earnings across generations, that is between fathers and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (sons. The first ar)' 83.5200 0.0000 TD (ticle estimates int)Tj 84.0000 0.0000 TD (ergenerationa)Tj 65.0400 0.0000 TD (l earnings mobility m)Tj 103.0800 0.0000 TD (odels using quantile)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -335.5800 -14.4000 TD (regressions and e)Tj 82.4400 0.0000 TD (xplores the role o)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (f education as an)Tj 80.7600 0.0000 TD ( intergeneratio)Tj 69.4800 0.0000 TD (nal transmission me)Tj 96.0000 0.0000 TD (chanism)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -412.2000 -14.4000 TD (for earnings. Ba)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (sed on analyses of)Tj 87.4800 0.0000 TD ( PSID and HS&B data, r)Tj 117.9600 0.0000 TD (esults indicate tha)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (t fathers )Tj 42.8400 0.0000 TD ( income)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -414.0000 -14.3400 TD (and education ar)Tj 79.0800 0.0000 TD (e important in expla)Tj 96.1800 0.0000 TD (ining intergener)Tj 76.2000 0.0000 TD (ational linkages in)Tj 87.9600 0.0000 TD ( earnings, but ther)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (e still)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -426.0000 -14.4000 TD (remains an unexp)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (lained family eff)Tj 79.8000 0.0000 TD (ect, particular)Tj 65.7600 0.0000 TD (ly for those sons hig)Tj 97.3200 0.0000 TD (hest in the income)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -327.3600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (distribution. Education seems to be relatively more valuable at the bottom of the conditional)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (earnings distribution suggesting that increasing educational attainment for sons at the bottom of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (the earnings distribution would help to lessen earnings inequalities. The second article shows)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (that when inferring how many generations it takes for a given family )Tj 333.7200 0.0000 TD (s earnings to revert to the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -333.7200 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (population mean, it)Tj 93.0000 0.0000 TD ( is important to take)Tj 96.0000 0.0000 TD ( into account not on)Tj 95.2800 0.0000 TD (ly single-genera)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD (tion correlations)Tj 78.2400 0.0000 TD ( in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -439.3200 -14.4000 TD (earnings but also t)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD (he distribution of st)Tj 93.7200 0.0000 TD (ochastic shocks a)Tj 83.1600 0.0000 TD (cross generatio)Tj 72.1200 0.0000 TD (ns.)Tj ET endstream endobj 121 0 obj << /Type /Pages /Kids [ 113 0 R 111 0 R 108 0 R 106 0 R 104 0 R ] /Count 5 /Parent 2 0 R >> endobj 122 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 136 0 R /Contents 123 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 123 0 obj << /Length 7726 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (41)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (decrease the incidence of substance abuse. Data from the 1996 NCES longitudinal study of over)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (17 thousand adoles)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (cents were ana)Tj 70.3200 0.0000 TD (lyzed. Approxima)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (tely 21% of those su)Tj 97.9200 0.0000 TD (rveyed admitted t)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (o)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -433.5600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (having engaged in binge drinking behavior within the previous two weeks. Other research has)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (yielded a slightly higher percentage, about one-third of 10th grade youth. Results indicated that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (parental support and school climate affected peer formation. This then influenced later drinking)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (habits. Parental support seems to have more effect than school climate. 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The inv)Tj 90.8400 0.0000 TD (estigation also)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -383.7000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (explores the impact of geographic location and race on the first-graders )Tj 345.7200 0.0000 TD ( environment. Utilizing)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -345.7200 -14.3400 TD (data from the Schools and Staffing Survey \(1987-88, 1990-91, and 1993-94\), this study shows)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (that the severity of problems - including student absenteeism and tardiness, physical conflict)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (among students, vandalism of school property, verbal abuse of teachers, robbery or theft, and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (possession of wea)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (pons - increased)Tj 77.7600 0.0000 TD ( from 1987-88 to 199)Tj 102.6000 0.0000 TD (3-94. Although urb)Tj 95.2800 0.0000 TD (an schools)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -362.1600 -14.4000 TD (experienced a)Tj 66.0000 0.0000 TD ( wider range of p)Tj 81.7200 0.0000 TD (roblems than subur)Tj 91.9200 0.0000 TD (ban and rural sc)Tj 76.0800 0.0000 TD (hools, the severit)Tj 81.6000 0.0000 TD (y of problems)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -397.2600 -14.3400 TD (increased more)Tj 72.7200 0.0000 TD ( in rural and subur)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD (ban schools than in)Tj 92.2800 0.0000 TD ( their urban coun)Tj 81.4800 0.0000 TD (terparts. For mino)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (rity)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -423.6000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (students, with the exception of drug and alcohol abuse, the severity of problems intensified as the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (percentage of first-grade minority students enrolled in particular schools increased. Regarding)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (the home environme)Tj 98.5200 0.0000 TD (nt, the severity of)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD ( problems - includin)Tj 96.9600 0.0000 TD (g lack of parenta)Tj 80.0400 0.0000 TD (l involvement,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -359.3400 -14.4000 TD (parental alcoho)Tj 73.4400 0.0000 TD (lism, drug abuse, a)Tj 90.2400 0.0000 TD (nd poverty - incre)Tj 85.4400 0.0000 TD (ased from 1990-9)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (1 to 1993-94. The r)Tj 95.8200 0.0000 TD (esults)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -429.4800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (of the study suggest that children may be victims of an environment that perpetuates behavior)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (and habits that diminish the effectiveness of the learning environment, with the consequence that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (these students are not ready for school. One solution to these problems of environment may be)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (the creation of an educative community )Tj 198.9600 0.0000 TD ( a concept that calls for the coming together of family,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -198.9000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (school, and socia)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (l agencies to maxi)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (mize positive impac)Tj 96.6000 0.0000 TD (t on students. Finally)Tj 103.8000 0.0000 TD (, educational eq)Tj 75.4800 0.0000 TD (uity)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -444.9600 -14.4000 TD (must be achieved f)Tj 90.1200 0.0000 TD (or students in urba)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (n areas and in sc)Tj 79.0800 0.0000 TD (hools where minor)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (ity students compris)Tj 96.7200 0.0000 TD (e)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -444.7200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (more than 50 percent of the student population.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Eide, E. Brewer, D)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (. J., and Ehrenber)Tj 86.5200 0.0000 TD (g, R. G. \(1998\). )Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD (Does It Pay to Atte)Tj 91.2000 0.0000 TD (nd an Elite Private)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -356.4600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (College? Evidence on the Effects of Undergraduate College Quality on Graduate School)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (Attendance. )Tj 63.6000 0.0000 TD ( Economics of Education Review 17: 371-376.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -63.5400 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Although recent r)Tj 84.4800 0.0000 TD (esearch has sho)Tj 74.4000 0.0000 TD (wn increasing ec)Tj 80.4000 0.0000 TD (onomic benefits f)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (or those who atten)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (d elite)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -411.3000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (private colleges, the authors believe scholars may still understate the advantage because survey)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (data is usually col)' 86.2800 0.0000 TD (lected when many)Tj 87.1200 0.0000 TD ( respondents are)Tj 77.7600 0.0000 TD ( still in graduate sc)Tj 90.6000 0.0000 TD (hool \(or have just)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -341.7000 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (graduated\). They argue that access to top graduate schools is in fact a large part of the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (mechanism where)Tj 86.7600 0.0000 TD (by elite college d)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (iplomas translate)Tj 81.6000 0.0000 TD ( into economic rew)Tj 92.1600 0.0000 TD (ards. Using probit)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -342.7200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (regression, the authors estimate the effect of elite college attendance on graduate school)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (admission for three cohorts of students drawn from NLS:72 and High School and Beyond. They)Tj ET endstream endobj 124 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 136 0 R /Contents 125 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 125 0 obj << /Length 7209 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (40)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (They also use data from the 1990 Census. ANOVA estimates show that neighborhood context)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (makes a bigger difference in students )Tj 182.5200 0.0000 TD ( achievement in social studies than in reading, science, or)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -182.5200 -14.4000 TD (mathematics. A hierarchical linear model of social studies achievement demonstrates that the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (source of this nei)Tj 82.2000 0.0000 TD (ghborhood effec)Tj 78.7200 0.0000 TD (t is the presence)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD ( or absence of r)Tj 73.6800 0.0000 TD (acially based ec)Tj 75.7200 0.0000 TD (onomic)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -387.0600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (inequality; mere diversity has no effect. In addition to its overall negative effect on social studies)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (learning, racial inequality increases the natural disadvantage boys have in this subject, and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (\(paradoxically\) decreases the advantage enjoyed by students of high socioeconomic status. In)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (addition, the HLM model shows that low achievers in tenth grade make greater gains in social)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (studies than others. OLS regression estimates show that this is also true for reading and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (mathematics \(but not science\). The reasons seem to be that low achievers who remain in school)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (work hard during their last two years, and that their teachers provide them with encouragement)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (and learning res)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD (ources.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -76.4400 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Borman, G. D. and Ra)Tj 108.2400 0.0000 TD (chuba, L. T. \(1999\).)Tj 95.6400 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 9.7200 0.0000 TD (Qualifications and P)Tj 100.0800 0.0000 TD (rofessional Growth)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -313.6800 -14.4000 TD (Opportunities of Tea)Tj 100.0800 0.0000 TD (chers in High- and Lo)Tj 105.9600 0.0000 TD (w-Poverty Eleme)Tj 82.0800 0.0000 TD (ntary Schools. )Tj 75.3600 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Negro)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -363.4200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Education 68: 366-381.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (Previous research has concluded that students who attend schools with relatively high levels of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (poverty are more likely to be taught by teachers who are not well prepared, experienc)' 409.2000 0.0000 TD (ed, or)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -409.1400 -14.3400 TD (qualified. In addition, these teachers appear to have fewer professional growth opportunities than)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (those teachers in schools with low poverty levels. 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They find that indeed, high-poverty schools do offer less institutional and)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (professional growth support than is offered to teachers in low-poverty schools. They also find)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (that this can lead to lower efficacy levels and implementation of reforms. They conclude that)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (there is much to support the most recent wave of educational reforms, which supplements the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (older method of top down reform with teacher and school agency and autonomy.)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Coker, J. K. and Bor)Tj 99.6000 0.0000 TD (ders, L. D. \(2001\).)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 9.7200 0.0000 TD (An Analysis of Envir)Tj 99.0000 0.0000 TD (onmental and Socia)Tj 95.2800 0.0000 TD (l Factors)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -392.4600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Affecting Adolescent Problem Drinking. )Tj 199.2000 0.0000 TD ( Journal of Counseling and Development 79: 200-208. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -199.1400 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Prevention of yout)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (h substance abuse)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD ( has become a prio)Tj 89.7600 0.0000 TD (rity in recent de)Tj 75.4800 0.0000 TD (cades. With data)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -340.3200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (indicating that 70% of adolescents report drinking alcohol before the age of 12, researchers ha)Tj 451.2000 0.0000 TD (ve)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -451.2000 -14.4000 TD (been preoccupied with the life factors that seem to promote or prevent destructive behavior. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Historically, theory has focused upon a variety of issues: peer associations, parental)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (relationships, and environmental factors. Recently, the school climate or environment has)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (become a focus of research interest. The authors hypothesize that parental support, pare)Tj 422.5200 0.0000 TD (ntal)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -422.4600 -14.4000 TD (control, community involvement, and positive school climates of 8)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 321.2400 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw ( grade students affect the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -326.8800 -14.3400 TD (formation of peer relationships and positive value structures in 10)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 315.2400 4.3200 TD /F6 6.9600 Tf 0.1200 Tc -0.1200 Tw (th)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 5.6400 -4.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw ( grade which, in tu)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD (rn, will)Tj ET endstream endobj 126 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 55 0 R /Contents 127 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 127 0 obj << /Length 7420 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (39)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (in ability-groupe)Tj 80.2800 0.0000 TD (d schools with stude)Tj 97.6800 0.0000 TD (nts of similar abilit)Tj 91.0800 0.0000 TD (y level in non-abil)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD (ity grouped school)Tj 89.2800 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -445.8600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (and found that there is little effect of formal ability grouping when comparing these groups. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (They then address criticisms that question these findings. 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The au)Tj 85.8000 0.0000 TD (thors then go on to)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -341.1600 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (enumerate six major problems present in this field of study. )Tj 297.0000 0.0000 TD (Definition problems, )Tj 105.2400 0.0000 TD ( they state,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -402.1800 -14.3400 TD ( )Tj 5.2800 0.0000 TD (are compounded by a series of measurement issues. )Tj 252.7200 0.0000 TD ( The authors describe an ideal data set as)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -258.0000 -14.4000 TD (one that would include data on every student at a particular school, on how teachers group)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (students within a classroom, and on curriculum differences between and within classrooms. )' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (They conclude that based upon the current research, it is not possible to make an easy decision as)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (to whether )' 59.1600 0.0000 TD (de-tracking )Tj 59.7600 0.0000 TD ( students will have a positive, negative or any effect on achievement for)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -118.8600 -14.3400 TD (most American students. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Bielinski, J. and D)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD (avison, M. L. \(2001\))Tj 97.9200 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 9.7200 0.0000 TD (A Sex Difference)Tj 80.4000 0.0000 TD ( by Item Difficulty)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD ( Interaction in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -363.7800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Multiple-Choice Mathematics Items Administered to National Probability Samples. )Tj 407.2800 0.0000 TD ( Journal of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -407.2800 -14.3400 TD (Educational Measurement 38: 51-77.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (A notable gender gap in mathematics achievement has been found in a multitude of data sets. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (The evidence points to females being more successful at mathematics in grade school; males, on)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (the other hand, are favored by the gender gap in high school. During middle school, both sexes)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (exhibit similar accomplishment. Why does the gap exist? Explanations for this depend upon)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (whether one feels the gap is a characteristic of the examinees or the material being studied. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (Many argue that basic differences in the male and female thought processes account for)Tj 419.8800 0.0000 TD ( the gap:)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -419.8800 -14.4000 TD (females are better at understanding abstract terms and males do better on applied items. The)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (assumption here is that the mathematics learned at earlier stages of life is more abstract and high)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (school math is more concrete and applicable. The authors of this paper take a slightly different)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (stance on the issue. They argue that there is a sex difference by item difficulty interaction)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (present in standardized, multiple choice mathematics tests. Using data from three national)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (studies of student a)' 92.2800 0.0000 TD (chievement \(the)Tj 76.8000 0.0000 TD ( 1992 NAEP, TIMSS and)Tj 123.0000 0.0000 TD ( NELS:88\), the auth)Tj 96.6000 0.0000 TD (ors tested their)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -388.6800 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (hypothesis. They found that although the association varied across populations, it was)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (statistically significant in all samples. Specifically, results show that easy math questions are)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (easier for females than for their male counterparts. Hard math questions, on the other hand, favor)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (males over fema)' 79.0800 0.0000 TD (les. Females will thu)Tj 102.3000 0.0000 TD (s outperform male)Tj 87.8400 0.0000 TD (s on easier tests.)Tj 77.8800 0.0000 TD ( On more difficult)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -347.1600 -14.4000 TD (material, for ex)Tj 73.4400 0.0000 TD (ample college en)Tj 81.1200 0.0000 TD (trance exams, ma)Tj 83.4000 0.0000 TD (les will do better th)Tj 92.6400 0.0000 TD (an females.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -330.6000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Blau, J., Lamb, V., Stearns, E., and Pellerin, L. \(2001\). )Tj 273.9600 0.0000 TD (Cosmopolitan Environments and)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -273.9600 -14.4000 TD (Adolescents )Tj 61.2000 0.0000 TD ( Gains in Social Studies. )Tj 124.4400 0.0000 TD ( Sociology of Education 74: 121-38.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -185.6400 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The authors theorize that high school students )Tj 224.4000 0.0000 TD ( achievement in social studies will be facilitated)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -224.3400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (by residence in a)Tj 80.7600 0.0000 TD ( )Tj 8.2800 0.0000 TD (cosmopolitan )Tj 69.9600 0.0000 TD ( neighborhood env)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (ironment. A cosmop)Tj 101.2800 0.0000 TD (olitan environmen)Tj 87.6000 0.0000 TD (t is)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -437.7000 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (one where residents come from diverse racial and ethnic groups, but racial inequality in resource)Tj 463.2000 0.0000 TD (s)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -463.2000 -14.3400 TD (is not high. Cosmopolitan settings are beneficial because they are high in )Tj 361.5600 0.0000 TD (social complexity )Tj 90.2400 0.0000 TD (;)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -451.7400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (students are cha)Tj 76.4400 0.0000 TD (llenged to negotia)Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (te a wide variety)Tj 79.4400 0.0000 TD ( of interactions a)Tj 80.1600 0.0000 TD (nd roles in their da)Tj 89.8800 0.0000 TD (ily lives.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -411.7800 -14.4000 TD (To test their theor)Tj 85.5600 0.0000 TD (y, the authors use)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD ( data from the 1990)Tj 93.8400 0.0000 TD ( and 1992 High Schoo)Tj 107.2800 0.0000 TD (l Effectiveness)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -370.5600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Survey administered to students and school administrators as part of the follow-up to NELS:88. )Tj ET endstream endobj 128 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 55 0 R /Contents 129 0 R /MediaBox [ 0 0 612 792 ] /Resources << /ProcSet [ /PDF /Text ] /Font << /F6 15 1 R /F12 37 0 R >> >> >> endobj 129 0 obj << /Length 7843 >> stream 1.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.0000 0.0000 cm 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg BT 300.9600 75.3600 TD /F6 9.0000 Tf 0.5400 Tc -0.5400 Tw (38)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -228.9600 634.3200 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (and their higher s)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (alaries are not)Tj 67.0800 0.0000 TD ( explained by soci)Tj 86.8800 0.0000 TD (odemographic, e)Tj 79.7400 0.0000 TD (ducational, or em)Tj 83.5200 0.0000 TD (ployment-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -400.8000 -14.3400 TD (related barrie)Tj 63.3600 0.0000 TD (rs. In general, t)Tj 75.1200 0.0000 TD (he results suggest)Tj 84.6000 0.0000 TD ( that older gradua)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD (tes for the most par)Tj 92.5200 0.0000 TD (t fare better in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -399.7200 -14.4000 TD (the labor market)Tj 78.4800 0.0000 TD ( than previously tho)Tj 95.6400 0.0000 TD (ught.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -174.1200 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Betts, J. \(1998\). )Tj 85.9200 0.0000 TD (The Impact of Eduational Standards on the Level and Distribution of)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -85.8600 -14.4000 TD (Earnings. )Tj 53.7600 0.0000 TD ( The American Economic Review 88\(1\): 266-275.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -53.7600 -14.3400 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Economists have be)Tj 95.8800 0.0000 TD (come increasing)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD (ly interested in the)Tj 88.9200 0.0000 TD ( role of standard)Tj 78.1200 0.0000 TD (s in improving the qua)Tj 108.0000 0.0000 TD (lity)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -448.9800 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (of public education. 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These considerations suggest that in the case of educational standards, the trade-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (off between equ)' 77.0400 0.0000 TD (ity and efficien)Tj 72.4800 0.0000 TD (cy may not be as se)Tj 93.4800 0.0000 TD (vere as commonly t)Tj 94.2000 0.0000 TD (hought.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -337.1400 -28.7400 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (Betts, J. R. and Shkolnik, J. 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ABSTRACTS)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.6200 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Baker, D. P., Riordan, C., and Schaub, M. \(1995\). )Tj 250.8000 0.0000 TD (The Effects of Sex-Grouped Schooling on)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -250.8000 -14.4000 TD (Achievement: The Role of National Context. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 218.5200 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 3.0000 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Comparative Education Review)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 152.5200 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf ( )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 3.0000 0.0000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (34\(4\):468-482)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 69.8400 0.0000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -446.8800 -14.4000 TD (In this article, Baker et al. examine the role of national context on the effects of single- or mixed-)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (sex schooling. To this end, they choose four countries \(two of which, Belgium and New)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Zealand, have more even enrollments in single and mixed high schools and two of which,)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (Thailand and Japa)Tj 87.1200 0.0000 TD (n, have less than 2)Tj 88.2000 0.0000 TD (0% enrollment in sin)Tj 100.3200 0.0000 TD (gle-sex high scho)Tj 83.8800 0.0000 TD (ols\) and study their)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -359.5200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (national twelfth-grade mathematics achievement trends. Much previous research has assumed)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (that male students o)' 95.6400 0.0000 TD (ften dominate soc)Tj 85.2000 0.0000 TD (ial interactions a)Tj 79.2000 0.0000 TD (nd that this impedes f)Tj 103.3200 0.0000 TD (emale achievem)Tj 77.4000 0.0000 TD (ent in)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -440.7600 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (mixed-sex classrooms. The authors note, however, that while many studies find clear differences)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (between sex grou)' 83.7600 0.0000 TD (pings, a substantia)Tj 88.3200 0.0000 TD (l number of them fin)Tj 99.2400 0.0000 TD (d only small and subst)Tj 107.4000 0.0000 TD (antively)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -378.7200 -14.4000 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (insignificant influences and results often vary across countries. To address these issues, the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (authors present and test three cross-national hypotheses using data from the International)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (Educational Assessment )' 120.8400 0.0000 TD (s Second Mathematics Study. Their findings suggest that although the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -120.8400 -14.4000 TD (interactions among the sexes in classrooms affect achievement, this effect may be mitigated or)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (increased by the context of a country )Tj 180.8400 0.0000 TD (s usual system of schooling. In other words, specialized)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -180.8400 -14.4000 TD 0.0600 Tc -0.0600 Tw (schools in any coun)Tj 94.9200 0.0000 TD (try may have incr)Tj 84.1200 0.0000 TD (eased achieve)Tj 66.0000 0.0000 TD (ment scores due to)Tj 89.5200 0.0000 TD ( the fact that thes)Tj 81.8400 0.0000 TD (e schools,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -416.3400 -14.3400 TD (for the most part, h)Tj 91.5600 0.0000 TD (ave greater cr)Tj 64.9200 0.0000 TD (eative control ov)Tj 80.5200 0.0000 TD (er the makeup of t)Tj 87.1200 0.0000 TD (he student body, the)Tj 96.6000 0.0000 TD ( teachers,)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -420.7200 -14.3400 TD 0.0000 Tc 0.0000 Tw (the curriculum, the school structure, etc. Therefore, it is difficult to make absolute statements as)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (to the effects of single-sex schooling as they will most likely differ according to whether or not)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (single-sex or mixed-sex schooling is the national norm. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -28.8000 TD /F12 12.0000 Tf (Bellas, M. \(2001\). )Tj 96.6000 0.0000 TD (Investment in Higher Education: Do Labor-Market Opportunities Differ by)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -96.5400 -14.3400 TD (Age of Recent College Graduates? )Tj 173.1600 0.0000 TD ( Research in Higher Education 42\(1\): 1-25.)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -173.1000 -14.4000 TD /F6 12.0000 Tf (The relationship between age and the post-graduation experiences of college graduate)Tj 410.8800 0.0000 TD (s has often)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -410.8200 -14.3400 TD (been overlooked in research that examines labor market opportunities for recent graduate)Tj 427.2000 0.0000 TD (s. )Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -427.2000 -14.4000 TD (However, given the aging of the U.S. student population and the growing awareness of age)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg (discrimination, it is becoming an increasingly important topic. This paper uses data from the)' 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study to generate descriptive statistics comparing the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (characteristics, job search strategies, and experiences of older \(40+ yea)Tj 339.9600 0.0000 TD (rs old\) and younger \(<40)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg -339.9000 -14.3400 TD (years old\) college graduates. Multiple regression techniques are then used to examine the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (potential effects of age on number of job interviews and number of job offers, controlling for the)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.3400 TD (potential effects of sex, race, marital status, dependent children, various education-related)Tj 0.00 0.00 0.00 rg 0.0000 -14.4000 TD (variables, and whether respondents had any work experience related to their degr)Tj 388.2000 0.0000 TD (ee. 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